tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-72772452635962666702024-02-19T11:01:13.105+06:00SHAON for everyoneUnknownnoreply@blogger.comBlogger35125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-80272211294020165702011-02-08T13:08:00.000+06:002011-02-08T13:08:30.615+06:00Biography of Alexander The Great<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAa1OHs3XP7-BR9R_DkZzELH0n_jHA5rMpX9x9cJoQCbh4WgiQIbNptEcm0NnTi8Jdq4pEMXwRWD7Rlohwf0LogVT-Mo3TT80sRFHOMYKq1kDay_fm48recC3BwQqRtzYI0jEZJa0jzeFm/s1600/Alexander_the_Great.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAa1OHs3XP7-BR9R_DkZzELH0n_jHA5rMpX9x9cJoQCbh4WgiQIbNptEcm0NnTi8Jdq4pEMXwRWD7Rlohwf0LogVT-Mo3TT80sRFHOMYKq1kDay_fm48recC3BwQqRtzYI0jEZJa0jzeFm/s200/Alexander_the_Great.png" width="156" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Alexander The Great (356-323 B.C.)</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">king of Macedonia (336–323 ). He overthrew the Persian Empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><br />
</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Life</b></span></div><h2 id="59254" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He was born in 356 at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation; but he was later to advance beyond his teacher's narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip's attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people; two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes. A year later Philip divorced Olympias; and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father's new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned; but his position as heir was jeopardized.</span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 336, however, on Philip's assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip's murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly, and at an assembly of the Greek League at Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia, already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi, crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes, and the Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë, Albania) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar's house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery. The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth, Chalcis, and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes).</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 id="59255" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Beginnings of the Persian expedition</span></h3><h3 id="59255" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition. He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta, in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian Empire. With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander's second in command was Parmenio, who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip's lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After visiting Ilium (Troy), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer, he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps, at the Granicus (modern Kocaba) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander's victory was complete. Darius' Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander's campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus, encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault; but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria, Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed; but Ada, the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 id="59256" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Asia Minor and the Battle of Issus</span></h3><h3 id="59256" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia; and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga, passing the cliffs of Mt. Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander's flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. At Gordium in Phrygia, tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot, which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon, the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mt. Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern Iskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander's position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander's hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.</span></div><h3 id="59257" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59257" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt</span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius' war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic ayd), he met with a check at Tyre, where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates. “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander's greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div id="articleText" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;">In November 332 he reached Egypt. The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis, the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt, where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Swah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.</span><br />
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</span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media.</span><br />
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</span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Alexander now occupied Babylon, city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin. As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa, the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius' family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes, as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs, an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital Ecbatana. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war.</span><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As Mazaeus' appointment indicated, Alexander's views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy, near Tehrn) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shhrd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Campaign eastward, to Central Asia</span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;">Darius' death left no obstacle to Alexander's claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”— i.e., of the Persian Empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern mol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius' Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Hert). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e 'Ali in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas, Parmenio's son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander's life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander, Parmenio's second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander's position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father's men. All Parmenio's adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander's oldest friend, Hephaestion, the other by Cleitus, an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kbul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus.</span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;">Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59258" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">From Maracanda (modern Samarkand) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian Empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad (Khojent) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai, a people of the aka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tadzhikistan); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana. In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed.</span></h3><div id="articleText" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel; but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason. The event marked a step in Alexander's progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra, he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration ( proskynesis), on the Greeks and Macedonians too; but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king's presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a man. Even Callisthenes, historian and nephew of Aristotle, whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections.</span><br />
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<h3 id="59259" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Invasion of India</span></h3><h3 id="59259" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch's figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas, both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass, while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swt and Gandhra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila, whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus, who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum) and the Acesines (modern Chenb). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes. He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus, which died there); and Porus became his ally.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander's four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus, and Alexander's own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kutch. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander's march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 id="59260" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Consolidation of the empire</span></h3><h3 id="59260" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h3><h3 id="59260" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity.</span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In spring 324 he was back in Susa, capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian Empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus, is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus, evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens, he escaped and later was murdered in Crete. At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian Empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius' daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander's relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Orientals from Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry; whether Orientals had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis, gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div id="articleText" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;">The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander's decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander's governor Antipater. Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus; but he was to die before this could be done.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana, and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles. He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans, and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts, Iberians, and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander's divine status. Following up Nearchus' voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian ( i.e., Caspian) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon, while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf, Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II's half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus, and Alexander's posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV, as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander's death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus' lead in 306, took the title of king.</span></span><br />
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<h2 id="59261" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Evaluation</span></h2><h2 id="59261" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Of Alexander's plans little reliable information survives. The far-reaching schemes for the conquest of the western Mediterranean and the setting up of a universal monarchy, recorded by Diodorus, a 1st-century Greek historian, are probably based on a later forgery; if not, they were at once jettisoned by his successors and the army. Had he lived, he would no doubt have completed the conquest of Asia Minor, where Paphlagonia, Cappadocia, and Armenia still maintained an effective independence. But in his later years Alexander's aims seem to have been directed toward exploration, in particular of Arabia and the Caspian.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In the organization of his empire, Alexander had been content in many spheres to improvise and adapt what he found. His financial policy is an exception; though the details cannot be wholly recovered, it is clear that he set up a central organization with collectors perhaps independent of the local satraps. That this proved a failure was partly due to weaknesses in the character of Harpalus, his chief treasurer. But the establishment of a new coinage with a silver standard based on that of Athens in place of the old bimetallic system current both in Macedonia and in Persia helped trade everywhere and, combined with the release of vast amounts of bullion from the Persian treasuries, gave a much-needed fillip to the economy of the whole Mediterranean area.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Alexander's foundation of new cities—Plutarch speaks of over 70—initiated a new chapter in Greek expansion. No doubt many of the colonists, by no means volunteers, deserted these cities, and marriages with native women led to some dilution of Greek ways; but the Greek (rather than Macedonian) influence remained strong in most of them, and since the process was carried further by Alexander's Seleucid successors, the spread of Hellenic thought and customs over much of Asia as far as Bactria and India was one of the more striking effects of Alexander's conquests.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His plans for racial fusion, on the other hand, were a failure. The Iranian satraps were perhaps not efficient, for out of 18, ten were removed or executed—with what justice it is no longer possible to say. But, more important, the Macedonians, leaders and men alike, rejected the idea, and in the later Seleucid Empire the Greek and Macedonian element was to be clearly dominant.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">How far Alexander would have succeeded in the difficult task of coordinating his vast dominions, had he lived, is hard to determine. The only link between the many units that went to make up an empire more disparate than that of the Habsburgs, and far larger, was his own person; and his death came before he could tackle this problem.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">What had so far held it all together was his own dynamic personality. He combined an iron will and ability to drive himself and his men to the utmost with a supple and flexible mind; he knew when to draw back and change his policy, though he did this reluctantly. He was imaginative and not without romantic impulses; figures like Achilles, Heracles, and Dionysus were often in his mind, and the salutation at the oracle of Amon clearly influenced his thoughts and ambitions ever afterward. He was swift in anger, and under the strain of his long campaigns this side of his character grew more pronounced. Ruthless and self-willed, he had increasing recourse to terror, showing no hesitation in eliminating men whom he had ceased to trust, either with or without the pretense of a fair trial. Years after his death, Cassander, son of Antipater, a regent of the Macedonian Empire under Alexander, could not pass his statue at Delphi without shuddering. Yet he maintained the loyalty of his men, who followed him to the Hyphasis without complaining and continued to believe in him throughout all hardships. Only when his whim would have taken them still farther into unknown India did he fail to get his way.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As a general Alexander is among the greatest the world has known. He showed unusual versatility both in the combination of different arms and in adapting his tactics to the challenge of enemies who commanded novel forms of warfare—the aka nomads, the Indian hill tribes, or Porus with his elephants. His strategy was skillful and imaginative, and he knew how to exploit the chances that arise in every battle and may be decisive for victory or defeat; he also drew the last advantage from victory by relentless pursuit. His use of cavalry was so effective that he rarely had to fall back upon his infantry to deliver the crushing blow.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Alexander's short reign marks a decisive moment in the history of Europe and Asia. His expedition and his own personal interest in scientific investigation brought many advances in the knowledge of geography and natural history. His career led to the moving of the great centres of civilization eastward and initiated the new age of the Greek territorial monarchies; it spread Hellenism in a vast colonizing wave throughout the Middle East and created, if not politically at least economically and culturally, a single world stretching from Gibraltar to the Punjab, open to trade and social intercourse and with a considerable overlay of common civilization and the Greek koin as a lingua franca. It is not untrue to say that the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity as a world religion, and the long centuries of Byzantium were all in some degree the fruits of Alexander's achievement.</span></div></div></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-28970844740188729072011-02-07T17:38:00.001+06:002011-02-07T17:44:02.191+06:00Biography of Walt Whitman<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicsPnsv4xEgYvcQMKBGCwvretcQjgS9jT_LDAhILdRfqx9ezInlk-ejd0ps9wBZlyFP-hXF15Im0srTVGUkwWntMWmjWQvJcLpjopRYJCEFAiD7_PyjHFjWXXmLiOt7Mdb8R6I8_N86qHs/s1600/walt-whitman.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEicsPnsv4xEgYvcQMKBGCwvretcQjgS9jT_LDAhILdRfqx9ezInlk-ejd0ps9wBZlyFP-hXF15Im0srTVGUkwWntMWmjWQvJcLpjopRYJCEFAiD7_PyjHFjWXXmLiOt7Mdb8R6I8_N86qHs/s200/walt-whitman.jpg" width="147" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Walt Whitman (1819-1892)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Walter "Walt" Whitman (May 31, 1819 – March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds314_0-0"></sup> His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Born on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, and–in addition to publishing his poetry–was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman's major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. He died at age 72 and his funeral became a public spectacle.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving480_1-0"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds589_2-0"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Whitman's sexuality is often discussed alongside his poetry. Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckham_3-0"></sup> However, there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving19_4-0"></sup> Whitman was concerned with politics throughout his life. He supported the Wilmot Proviso and opposed the extension of slavery generally. His poetry presented an egalitarian view of the races, and at one point he called for the abolition of slavery, but later he saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to democracy.</span><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life"> </span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman. The second of nine children,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"></sup> he was immediately nicknamed "Walt" to distinguish him from his father.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving29_7-0"></sup> Walter Whitman Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple's sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving29_7-1"></sup> At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"></sup> Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family's difficult economic status.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"></sup> One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"></sup> He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"></sup> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13">.</sup> He may have written "sentimental bits" of filler material for occasional issues.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"></sup> Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"></sup> Clements left the Patriot shortly after, possibly as a result of the controversy.</span><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_career">Early career</span></span></b></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_career"> </span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds45_17-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds45_17-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances,</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> He moved to New York City to work as a compositor</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaplan81_22-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> He attempted to find further work but had difficulty in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaplan81_22-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup> Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"></sup></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds60_26-0"></sup> No copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman survive.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"></sup> By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds60_26-1"></sup> He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"></sup> During this time, he published a series of ten editorials called "Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster" in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"></sup> At one of the schools, the Locust Grove School in Southold, New York in 1840 he was reported to have been tarred and carried out on a rail by a mob after Presbyterian Church, pastor Ralph Smith accused him of committing sodomy with some students. The school is subsequently referred to on maps as the “Sodom School.”<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30"></sup> Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"></sup>Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32"></sup> He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33"></sup> Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil "Barnburner" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or "Hunker", wing of the party.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"></sup> Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline" id="Leaves_of_Grass">Leaves of Grass</span></b></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline" id="Leaves_of_Grass"> </span></b></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Whitman claimed that after years of competing for "the usual rewards", he determined to become a poet.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> As early as 1850, he began writing what would become </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">,</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-38" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> with a and used free versecadence based on the Bible.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> At the end of June 1855, Whitman surprised his brothers with the already-printed first edition of </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. George "didn't think it worth reading".</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Callow226_41-1"></sup> and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"></sup> A total of 795 copies were printed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43"></sup> No name is given as author; instead, facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44"></sup> but in the body of the text he calls himself "Walt Whitman, an American, one of the roughs, a kosmos, disorderly, fleshly, and sensual, no sentimentalist, no stander above men or women or apart from them, no more modest than immodest".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45"></sup> The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson, who wrote a flattering five page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46"></sup> The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47"></sup> in part due to Emerson's approval,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48"></sup> but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly "obscene" nature of the poetry.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49"></sup> Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson, calling the book "trashy, profane & obscene" and the author "a pretentious ass".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50"></sup> On July 11, 1855, a few days after Leaves of Grass was published, Whitman's father died at the age of 65.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass, critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes. Though the second edition was already printed and bound, the publisher almost did not release it.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52"></sup> In the end, the edition went to retail, with 20 additional poems,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53"></sup> in August 1856.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54"></sup> Leaves of Grass was revised and re-released in 1860<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55"></sup> again in 1867, and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman's life. Several well-known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman, including Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">During the first publications of Leaves of Grass, Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again, specifically with Brooklyn's Daily Times starting in May 1857.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57"></sup> As an editor, he oversaw the paper's contents, contributed book reviews, and wrote editorials.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58"></sup> He left the job in 1859, though it is unclear if he was fired or chose to leave.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59"></sup> Whitman, who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals, left very little information about himself in the late 1850s.</span><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_War_years">Civil War years</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_War_years"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_War_years"> <br />
</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As the American Civil War was beginning, Whitman published his poem "Beat! Beat! Drums!" as a patriotic rally call for the North.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61"></sup> Whitman's brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62"></sup> On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included "First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore", which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaplan268_63-0"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds411_64-0"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65"></sup> he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaplan268_63-1"></sup> Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left for Washington on December 28, 1862 with the intention of never returning to New York.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds411_64-1"></sup> He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way. "Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people", Whitman later wrote,</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In Washington, D.C., Whitman's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster's office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67"></sup> and, 12 years later, in a book called Memoranda During the War.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68"></sup> He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds411_64-2"></sup>Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Leaves of Grass.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69"></sup> </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">He would write of this experience in "The Great Army of the Sick", published in a New York newspaper in 1863</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman's brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia,</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-71" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Whitman's spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, thanks to his friend William Douglas O'Connor. O'Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist and an editor at the Saturday Evening Post, had written to William Tod Otto, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, on Whitman's behalf.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving283_73-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds455_74-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> A month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving283_73-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds455_74-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and published Drum-Taps.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving290_75-0"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving290_75-1"></sup> His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, former Iowa Senator James Harlan.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds455_74-2"></sup> Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who "were seldom at their respective desks", he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76"></sup> O'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General's office on July 1.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-77"></sup> O'Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study, The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866. The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet's nickname and increased his popularity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-78"></sup>O Captain! My Captain!", a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman's lifetime.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-79"></sup> </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of "</span></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Part of Whitman's role at the Attorney General's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons. "There are real characters among them", he later wrote, "and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-80"></sup> In August 1866, he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81"></sup> He hoped it would be its last edition.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving.2C_314_82-0"></sup> In February 1868 Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-83"></sup> with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84"></sup>Anne Gilchrist.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85"></sup> Another edition of The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-86"></sup> As Whitman's international fame increased, he remained at the attorney general's office until January 1872.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-87"></sup> He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88"></sup> He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26, 1872.</span><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Health_decline_and_death">Health decline and death</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Health_decline_and_death"> </span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Early in 1873, Whitman suffered a paralytic stroke; his mother died in May the same year. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-90"></sup> He moved to Camden, New Jersey, to live with his brother George, paying room and board until he bought his own house on Mickle St.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-91"></sup> Around this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis – the widow of a sea captain – who lived nearby.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-92"></sup> She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93"></sup> During this time, Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876, 1881, and 1889.<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> in 1884.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition of </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, an edition which has been nicknamed the "Deathbed Edition". He wrote, "L. of G. </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">at last complete</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">—after 33 y'rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-94" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $4,000</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving479_95-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and visited it often during construction.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup> In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: "I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotony — monotony — monotony — in pain."</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Whitman died on March 26, 1892.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia,</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving479_95-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as "pleurisy of the left side, consumption of the right lung, general miliary tuberculosis</span> and parenchymatous nephritis."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds.2C_588_99-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; over one thousand people visited in three hours</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving480_1-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> and Whitman's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds.2C_588_99-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden .</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving480_1-2" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds589_2-1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Whitman's friend, the orator Robert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Later, the remains of Whitman's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum.</span></span><br />
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<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Writing">Writing</span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Writing"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Writing"> <br />
</span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;">Whitman's work breaks the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose-like.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds314_0-1"></sup> He also used unusual images and symbols in his poetry, including rotting leaves, tufts of straw, and debris.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102"></sup> He also openly wrote about death and sexuality, including prostitution.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving.2C_314_82-1"></sup> He is often labeled as the father of free verse, though he did not invent it.</span></h2><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Poetic_theory"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Poetic_theory">Poetic theory</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Poetic_theory"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Poetic_theory"> <br />
</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition of </span><span style="font-weight: normal;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-weight: normal;">, "The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it." He believed there was a vital, symbiotic relationship between the poet and society.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-103" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> This connection was emphasized especially in "Song of Myself" by using an all-powerful first-person narration.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-104" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> As an American epic, it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span><span style="font-weight: normal;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> also responded to the impact that recent urbanization in the United States had on the masses.</span></span></h3><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Lifestyle_and_beliefs"> </span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Lifestyle_and_beliefs">Lifestyle and beliefs</span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Lifestyle_and_beliefs"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Lifestyle_and_beliefs"> <br />
</span></span></h2><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Alcohol">Alcohol</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Alcohol"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Alcohol"> <br />
</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;">Whitman was a vocal proponent of temperance and in his youth rarely drank alcohol. He once claimed he did not taste "strong liquor" until he was thirty<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107"></sup> and occasionally argued for prohibition.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108"></sup> One of his earliest long fiction works, the novel Franklin Evans; or, The Inebriate, first published November 23, 1842, is a temperance novel.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109"></sup> Whitman wrote the novel at the height of popularity of the Washingtonian movement though the movement itself was plagued with contradictions, as was Franklin Evans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110"></sup> Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the book<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-111"></sup> and called it a "damned rot".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-112"></sup> He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while he was under the influence of alcohol himself.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113"></sup> Even so, he wrote other pieces recommending temperance, including The Madman and a short story "Reuben's Last Wish".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-114"></sup> Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol, enjoying local wines and champagne.</span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion">Religion</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion"> <br />
</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Religion"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Whitman was deeply influenced by deism. He denied any one faith was more important than another, and embraced all religions equally.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds237_116-0" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> In "Song of Myself", he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of them – a sentiment he further emphasized in his poem "With Antecedents", affirming: "I adopt each theory, myth, god, and demi-god, / I see that the old accounts, bibles, genealogies, are true, without exception".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds237_116-1" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> In 1874, he was invited to write a poem about the Spiritualism movement, to which he responded, "It seems to me nearly altogether a poor, cheap, crude humbug."</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-117" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> Whitman was a religious skeptic: though he accepted all churches, he believed in none.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds237_116-2" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> God, to Whitman, was both immanent and transcendent and the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development.</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexuality"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexuality">Sexuality</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexuality"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Sexuality"> <br />
</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman's sexuality is generally assumed to be homosexual or bisexual based on his poetry, though that has been at times disputed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Buckham_3-1"></sup> His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy, individualistic way common in American culture before the medicalization of sexuality in the late 19th century.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119"></sup> Though Leaves of Grass was often labeled pornographic or obscene, only one critic remarked on its author's presumed sexual activity: in a November 1855 review, Rufus Wilmot Griswold suggested Whitman was guilty of "that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120"></sup> Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life. Some biographers have claimed that he may not have actually engaged in sexual relationships with males,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Loving19_4-1"></sup> while others cite letters, journal entries and other sources which they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-121"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Peter Doyle may be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman's life, according to biographer David S. Reynolds.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-122"></sup> Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866 and the two were inseparable for several years. Interviewed in 1895, Doyle said: "We were familiar at once — I put my hand on his knee — we understood. He did not get out at the end of the trip — in fact went all the way back with me."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123"></sup> In his notebooks, Whitman disguised Doyle's initials using the code "16.4".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124"></sup> A more direct second-hand account comes from Oscar Wilde. Wilde met Whitman in America in 1882 and wrote to the homosexual rights activist George Cecil Ives that there was "no doubt" about the great American poet's sexual orientation — "I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips," he boasted.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-125"></sup> The only explicit description of Whitman's sexual activities is second hand. In 1924 Edward Carpenter, then an old man, described an erotic encounter he had had in his youth with Whitman to Gavin Arthur, who recorded it in detail in his journal.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-126"></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-127"></sup> Late in his life, when Whitman was asked outright if his series of "Calamus" poems were homosexual, he chose not to respond.</span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another possible lover was Bill Duckett. As a young teenage boy he lived in on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman, living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles. Their relationship was close, with the youth sharing Whitman's money when he had it. Whitman described their friendship as "thick." Though some biographers describe him as a boarder, others identify him as a lover.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129"></sup> Their photograph [pictured] is described as "modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait," part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends, and encrypting male-male desire.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-130"></sup> Yet another intense relationship with a young man was the one with Harry Stafford, with whose family he stayed when at Timber Creek, and whom he first met when the young man was 18, in 1876. Whitman gave young Stafford a ring, which was returned and given back over the course of a stormy relationship lasting a number of years. Of that ring Stafford wrote to Whitman, "You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me, and that was death."<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-131"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There is also some evidence that Whitman may have had sexual relationships with women. He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress named Ellen Grey in the spring of 1862, but it is not known whether or not it was also sexual. He still had a photo of her decades later when he moved to Camden and referred to her as "an old sweetheart of mine".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-132" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup> In a letter dated August 21, 1890 he claimed, "I have had six children - two are dead". This claim has never been corroborated.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Toward the end of his life, he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from the </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">New York Herald</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> that he had "never had a love affair".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-134" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote, "the discussion of Whitman's sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges."</span></span><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Shakespeare_authorship">Shakespeare authorship</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Shakespeare_authorship"> </span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman was a proponent of the Shakespeare authorship question, refusing to believe in the historic attribution of the works to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon. Whitman comments in his November Boughs (1888) regarding Shakespeare's historical plays:</span></div><blockquote><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Conceiv'd out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism—personifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy, its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste, with its own peculiar air and arrogance (no mere imitation)—only one of the "wolfish earls" so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing works—works in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature.</span></span></b></blockquote><br />
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<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery">Slavery</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="Slavery"> <br />
</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported the Wilmot Proviso.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds117_136-0" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> At first he was opposed to abolitionism, believing the movement did more harm than good. In 1846, he wrote that the abolitionists had, in fact, slowed the advancement of their cause by their "ultraism and officiousness".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process, as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds117_136-1" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> In 1856, in his unpublished </span><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Eighteenth Presidency</span><span style="font-weight: normal;">, addressing the men of the South, he wrote "you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you". Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African-Americans should not vote</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds473_138-0" style="font-weight: normal;"></sup><span style="font-weight: normal;"> and was concerned at the increasing number of African-Americans in the legislature.</span></span></h3><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_influence"> </span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_influence">Legacy and influence</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_influence"> </span></span></h2><h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Legacy_and_influence"> <br />
</span></span></h2><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Walt Whitman has been claimed as America's first "poet of democracy", a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character. A British friend of Walt Whitman, Mary Smith Whitall Costelloe, wrote: "You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman, without </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">... He has expressed that civilization, 'up to date,' as he would say, and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him."</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-140" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman "America's poet... He </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">is</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> America."</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-141" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Andrew Carnegie called him "the great poet of America so far".</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-142" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Whitman considered himself a messiah-like figure in poetry.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Others agreed: one of his admirers, William Sloane Kennedy, speculated that "people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ".</span></span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-144"></sup><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The literary critic, Harold Bloom wrote, as the introduction for the 150th anniversary of Leaves of Grass:</span></div><blockquote><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">If you are American, then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother, even if, like myself, you have never composed a line of verse. You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States. They might include Melville's </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Moby-Dick</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">, Twain's </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">, and Emerson's two series of </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Essays</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> and </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The Conduct of Life</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">. None of those, not even Emerson's, are as central as the first edition of </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Leaves of Grass</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">.</span></span></b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-145"></sup></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman's vagabond lifestyle was adopted by the Beat movement and its leaders such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac in the 1950s and 1960s as well as anti-war poets like Adrienne Rich and Gary Snyder.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-146"></sup> Lawrence Ferlinghetti numbered himself among Whitman's "wild children", and the title of his 1961 collection Starting from San Francisco is a deliberate reference to Whitman's Starting from Paumanok.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-147"></sup> Whitman also influenced Bram Stoker, author of Dracula, and was the model for the character of Dracula. Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which, to Stoker, was Whitman, with whom he corresponded until Whitman's death.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman's poetry has been set to music by a large number of composers; indeed it has been suggested his poetry has been set to music more than any other American poet except for Emily Dickinson and Longfellow.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-149"></sup> Those who have set his poems to music have included Kurt Weill, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Paul Hindemith, Karl Amadeus Hartmann, Benjamin Britten, Leonard Bernstein, Ned Rorem, George Crumb, Roger Sessions and John Adams.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Whitman is a 2009 inductee of the New Jersey Hall of Fame.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150"></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The final stanza of the poem "The Wound-Dresser" by Walt Whitman has been engraved across the top of the massive granite walls encircling the 188-foot north entrance escalators descending to the underground trains at the DuPont Circle stop on the Washington, D.C. transit system. The installation was formally dedicated as a tribute to caregivers for those with HIV/Aids and other devastating illnesses at a ceremony on July 14, 2007.</span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Eagle Street College was an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace in Eagle Street, Bolton, to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman. The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites. Its members held an annual 'Whitman Day' celebration around the poet's birthday.</span></span><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;"> </span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Reynolds314_0-2"></sup><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Writing"> </span></span></h2><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Civil_War_years"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life"> </span></span></h3></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-25624326507184081142011-02-07T10:33:00.000+06:002011-02-07T10:33:27.020+06:00Biography of Ibn Khaldun<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGvZHD2Ef76Ctk6ShyWNBbyc4IQzB80BVhhvzrWWofK5rb6imAMcGdEaf2BePxiJ6kXPC29CrMrqwPvzvac-ZKy2QCazDVVNRmAsx5HPm1QTt6yfRIv1RO2gujfwxQvpdNhkUxeEX6_5wO/s1600/1294645908.IBN+KHALDUN.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiGvZHD2Ef76Ctk6ShyWNBbyc4IQzB80BVhhvzrWWofK5rb6imAMcGdEaf2BePxiJ6kXPC29CrMrqwPvzvac-ZKy2QCazDVVNRmAsx5HPm1QTt6yfRIv1RO2gujfwxQvpdNhkUxeEX6_5wO/s200/1294645908.IBN+KHALDUN.JPG" width="165" /></a></div><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Biography of Ibn Khaldun (1336-1406)</span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun (May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH – March 19, 1406 AD/808 AH) was an Arab famous Muslim polymath: an historian, historiographer, demographer, economist, philosopher, political theorist, sociologist and statesman whose treatise, the "Muqaddima", in which he pioneered a general sociological theory of history, shows him as one of the most original thinkers of the Middle Ages. Abd al-Rahman Ibn Mohammad is generally known as Ibn Khaldun after a remote ancestor. He is considered the father of demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history, sociology, and the social sciences, and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern economics.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">His family</span></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun’s - of southern Arabian origin - ancestors were from the Hadhramawt, now south eastern Yemen, and he relates that, in the eighth century, one Khaldun ibn ‘Uthman was with the Yemeni divisions that helped the Muslims colonize the Iberian Peninsula. Khaldun ibn ‘Uthman settled first at Carmona and then in Seville, where several of the family had distinguished careers as scholars and officials, they settled in Seville after the Moslem conquest of Spain and distinguished themselves in the political and intellectual life of the city. During the Christian recon quest of the Iberian Peninsula, the family immigrated to North Africa, probably about 1248, eventually settling in Tunis. Under the Tunisian Hafsid dynasty some of his family held political office; Ibn Khaldun’s father and grandfather however withdrew from political life and joined a mystical order. Ibn Khaldun always felt attached to the cultural tradition of Moslem Spain. However, the biographer Mohammad Enan questions his claim, suggesting that his family may have been Berbers who pretended to be of Arab origin in order to gain social status<span style="font-size: small;"><b>.</b></span></span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">The beginning</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunisia on May 27, 1332 (732 A.H.) into an upper-class Andalusian family. At the age of 17, the plague, or Black Death, reached Tunis. Ibn Khaldun lost both his parents to an epidemic of the plague which hit the city. His parents and several of his teachers died when the terrible epidemic that struck the Middle East, North Africa and Europe in 1347–1348, killing at least one-third of the population, had a traumatic effect on the survivors. Its impact showed in every aspect of life: art, literature, social structures and intellectual life. It was clearly one of the experiences that shaped Ibn Khaldun’s perception of the world.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></b></div><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Education</span></b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Growing up in Tunis, Ibn Khaldun studied the traditional religious sciences including law according to the Maliki school as well as the rational sciences. His family's high rank enabled Ibn Khaldun to study with the best North African teachers of the time. He received a classical Arabic education, studying the Qur'an and Arabic linguistics, the basis for an understanding of the Qur'an, hadith, and fiqh. The mystic, mathematician and philosopher Al-Abili introduced him to mathematics, logic and philosophy, where he above all studied the works of Averroes, Avicenna, Razi and al-Tusi. He also was trained in the arts necessary for a career in government. Among his teachers, he was most impressed by al-Abili, who came to Tunis in 1347 and introduced him to philosophy.<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Following family tradition, Ibn Khaldun strove for a political career. In the face of a tumultuous political situation in North Africa, this required a high degree of skill developing and dropping alliances prudently, to avoid falling with the short-lived regimes of the time. Ibn Khaldun’s autobiography is the story of an adventure, in which he spends time in prison, reaches the highest offices and falls again into exile.</span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Youth</span></span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">At the age of 20, he began his political career at the Chancellery of the Tunisian ruler Ibn Tafrakin with the position of Kātib al-'Alāmah, which consisted of writing in fine calligraphy the typical introductory notes of official documents. In 1352, the Sultan of Constantine, marched on Tunis and defeated it. Ibn Khaldun, in any case unhappy with his respected but politically meaningless position, followed his teacher Abili to Fez. Here the Marinid sultan appointed him as a writer of royal proclamations, which didn't prevent Ibn Khaldun from scheming against his employer. In 1357 this brought the 25-year-old a 22-month prison sentence. At the death of the sultan in 1358, the vizier granted him freedom and reinstated him in his rank and offices. Ibn Khaldun then schemed against the sultan successor, with Abu Salem's exiled uncle, Abu Salem. When Abu Salem came to power, he gave Ibn Khaldun a ministerial position, the first position which corresponded with Ibn Khaldun’s ambitions.</span><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Early years</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The treatment Ibn Khaldun received after the fall of Abu Salem through Ibn-Amar Abdullah, a friend of Ibn Khaldun’s, was not to his liking, he received no significant official position. At the same time, Amar successfully prevented Ibn Khaldun - whose political skills he was well aware of - from allying with the sultan of Tlemcen. Ibn Khaldun therefore decided to move to Granada. He could be sure of a positive welcome there, since at Fez he had helped the Sultan of Granada, the Nasrid Muhammad V, who regain power from his temporary exile. In 1364 Muhammad entrusted him with a diplomatic mission to the King of Castile, Pedro the Cruel, to endorse a peace treaty. Ibn Khaldun successfully carried out this mission and politely declined Pedro's offer to remain at his court and have his family's Spanish possessions returned to him.<br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In Granada, Ibn Khaldun quickly came into competition with Muhammad's vizier, who saw the close relationship between Muhammad and Ibn Khaldun with increasing mistrust. Ibn Khaldun tried to shape the young Muhammad into his ideal of a wise ruler, an enterprise which Muhammad's vizier thought foolish and a danger to peace in the country - and history proved him right. At Muhammad's vizier instigation, Ibn Khaldun was forced to leave Granada, though with official honours, in 1365; he was eventually sent back to North Africa. Muhammad's vizier himself was later accused by Muhammad of having unorthodox philosophical views, and murdered, despite an attempt by Ibn Khaldun to intercede on behalf of his old rival.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Late years</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun accepted an invitation from the Hafsid ruler of Bougie and became his minister. When the ruler was defeated and killed by his cousin a year later, Ibn Khaldun entered the service of the cousin but soon left as a result of court intrigue. The next 9 years were the most turbulent of his life. Thoroughly disappointed with his court experiences, he tried to keep away from politics and spent most of the time in research and teaching in Biskra, at the sanctuary of the saint Abu Madyan near Tlemcen, and in Fez. He felt, however, repeatedly obliged to assume political missions for various rulers among the Arab tribes in the area. In 1375 he briefly returned to Granada but was expelled.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Last years in Egypt</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">However, even in Egypt, where Ibn Khaldun lived out his days, he could not stay out of politics completely. In 1384 the Egyptian Sultan, al-Malik udh-Dhahir Barquq, made him Professor of the Qamhiyyah Madrasah, and grand Qadi (supreme judge) of the Maliki school of fiqh or religious law (one of four schools, the Maliki school was widespread primarily in West Africa). His efforts at reform encountered resistance, however, and within a year he had to resign his judgeship. A contributory factor to his decision to resign may have been the heavy personal blow that struck him in 1384, when a ship carrying his wife and children sank off the coast of Alexandria. Ibn Khaldun now decided to complete the pilgrimage to Mecca after all.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After his return in May 1388, Ibn Khaldun concentrated more strongly on a purely educational function at various Cairo madrasas. At court he fell out of favour for a time, as during revolts against Barquq he had - apparently under duress - together with other Cairo jurists issued a Fatwa against Barquq. Later relations with Barquq returned to normal, and he was once again named the Maliki qadi. Altogether he was called six times to this high office, which for various reasons he never held long.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1401, under Barquq's successor, his son Faraj, Ibn Khaldun took part in a military campaign against the Mongol conqueror Timur, who besieged Damascus. Ibn Khaldun cast doubt upon the viability of the venture and didn't really want to leave Egypt. His doubts were vindicated, as the young and inexperienced Faraj, concerned about a revolt in Egypt, left his army to its own devices in Syria and hurried home. Ibn Khaldun remained at the besieged city for seven weeks, being lowered over the city wall by ropes in order to negotiate with Timur, in a historic series of meetings which he reports extensively in his autobiography. Timur questioned him in detail about conditions in the lands of the Maghreb; at his request, Ibn Khaldun even wrote a long report about it. As he recognized the intentions behind this, he did not hesitate, on his return to Egypt, to compose an equally extensive report on the history of the Tartars, together with a character study of Timur, sending these to the Merinid rulers in Fez.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun spent the following five years in Cairo completing his autobiography and his history of the world and acting as teacher and judge. During this time he also formed an all male club named Rijal Hawa Rijal. Their activities attracted the attention of local religious authorities and he was placed under arrest. He died on 17 March 1406, one month after his sixth selection for the office of the Maliki qadi.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">His works</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun’s works can be classified in the categories of historical, and religious. Of his works on history, only his Universal History has survived to our day. Another work that is lost is the history that was written specifically for Tamerlane, as Ibn Khaldun mentioned in his autobiography. His religious books are: Lubab al-Mahsul (Summary of the Result); a commentary on an usul al-fiqh poem, and a few works which are of questionable attribute to him, namely a sufi tract “Shifa’ as-Sail” (Healing of the Inquirer).His most important work was Kitab al-‘Ibar, and of that the most significant section was the Muqaddimah. Such “introductions” were a recognized literary form at the time, and it is thus not surprising that the Muqaddimah is both long—three volumes in the standard translation—and the repository of its author’s most original thoughts. Kitab al-‘Ibar, which follows, is much more conventional in both content and organization, although it is one of the most important surviving sources for the history of medieval North Africa, the Berbers and, to a lesser extent, Muslim Spain.</span><br style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;" /><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun wrote a number of other books on purely academic subjects, as well as early works which have vanished. His Autobiography, although lacking personal details, contains extremely interesting information about the world in which he lived and, of course, about his meetings with Pedro and Timur. Ibn Khaldun’s strength was thus not as a historian in the traditional sense of a compiler of chronicles. He was the creator of a new discipline, ‘umran, or social science, which treated human civilization and social facts as an interconnected whole and would help to change the way history was perceived, as well as written. Of his early works, which were scholastic exercises in various fields of learning, only two are known to be extant.</span></span><b><span style="font-size: small;"></span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>The magnum opus “al muqaddima”</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn Khaldun's chief contribution lies in philosophy of history and sociology. He sought to write a world history preamble by a first volume aimed at an analysis of historical events. This volume, commonly known as Muqaddimah or 'Prolegomena', was based on Ibn Khaldun's unique approach and original contribution and became a masterpiece in literature on philosophy of history and sociology. The chief concern of this monumental work was to identify psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that contribute to the advancement of human civilization and the currents of history. In this context, he analysed the dynamics of group relationships and showed how group-feelings, al-'Asabiyya, give rise to the ascent of a new civilisation and political power and how, later on, its diffusion into a more general civilization invites the advent of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pristine form. He identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human civilization, and analysed factors contributing to it. His contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike earlier writers interpreting history largely in a political context, he emphasised environmental, sociological, psychological and economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat (Sociology).<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun’s magnum opus, “al-Muqaddimah” can be divided into three parts. The first part is the introduction, the second part is the Universal History, and the third part is the history of the Maghrib. He wrote his Introduction to his book of universal history in a span of five months. This impressive document is a gist of his wisdom and hard earned experience, in it he used his political and first had knowledge of the people of Maghrib to formulate many of his ideas.</span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><br />
</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>His theories</b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This document summarized Ibn Khaldun’s ideas about every field of knowledge during his day. He discussed a variety of topics like History and Historiography; he also rebuked some of the historical claims with a calculated logic, and discussed the current sciences of his days. He would talk about astronomy, astrology, and numerology, discussed Chemistry, alchemy and Magic in a scientific way, also he freely offered his opinions and document well the "facts" of the other point of view. His discussion of Tribal societies and social forces would be the most interesting part of his thesis. He illuminated the world with deep insight into the workings and makings of kingdoms and civilizations. His thesis that the conquered race will always emulate the conqueror in every way. His theory about Asbyiah (group feeling) and the role that it plays in Bedouin societies is insightful. His theories of the science of Umran (sociology) are all pearls of wisdom. His Introduction is his greatest legacy that he left for all of humanity and the generations to come.</span></span><b></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><br />
</b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Theory of civilization</b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn Khaldun's fame rests on his Muqaddima, in which he set forth the earliest general theory of the nature of civilization and the conditions for its development, intending it as a tool for understanding and writing history. He considered the permanent conflict between primitive Bedouin and highly developed urban society as a crucial factor in history. Civilization is for him an urban phenomenon to be realized only by local concentration and cooperation of men united under a strong dynastic rule. He saw group solidarity (as abiyya) as the driving force for this cooperation and the establishment of dynastic rule. The group with the strongest feeling of solidarity establishes its predominance and the rule of its leading family. The division of labour resulting from cooperation makes possible the production of conveniences and luxuries beyond the elementary necessities of life and the development of sciences. Indulgence in luxuries, however, causes degeneration and loss of group solidarity and thus results in the disintegration of the state and the group supporting the civilization. Another, less civilized group with an unspoiled sense of solidarity takes over and becomes heir to the earlier civilization.<br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun's history of the Maghreb, written with the insight of an active participant, presents a penetrating description of the rise and fall of dynasties and the role of Berber and Arab tribes. It is an invaluable source for the medieval history of North Africa. The other parts of his universal history generally lack such insight and source value. His autobiography, the most detailed one in medieval Muslim literature, offers a perspicacious description of his life until 1405.</span></span><b></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><br />
</b></div><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">View on science</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun’s view on science followed the traditional division of sciences, which involves a division into religious sciences and non-religious sciences. The non-religious sciences are further divided into useful and non-useful sciences (mainly the occult sciences such as magic, alchemy and astrology). In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun reports on all the sciences up to his time, with examples and quotations. He makes it a point to refute magic, alchemy, astrology, and philosophy in his book. His work became a record of the development of sciences in his day.</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">View on philosophy</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn Khaldun's view on philosophy is similar to that of al-Ghazali, in the sense that he attempted to reconcile mysticism and theology. In fact, Ibn Khaldun, according to Issawi, “…goes further than the latter [al-Ghazali] in bringing mysticism completely within the purview of the jurisprudent (faqih) and in developing a model of the Sufi shaykh, or master, as rather similar to the theologian. Philosophy was regarded as going beyond its appropriate level of discourse, in that 'the intellect should not be used to weigh such matters as the oneness of God, the other world, the truth of prophecy, the real character of the divine attributes, or anything else that lies beyond the level of the intellect” (Muqaddima 3, 38). Ibn Khaldun criticized Neoplatonic philosophy, and asserted that the hierarchy of being and its progression toward the Necessary Being, or God, is not possible without revelation.</span></span><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></b><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Conclusion</span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn Khaldun's influence on the subject of history, philosophy of history, sociology, political science and education has remained paramount down to our times. He is also recognized as the leader in the art of autobiography, a renovator in the fields of education and educational psychology and in Arabic writing stylistics. His books have been translated into many languages, both in the East and the West, and have inspired subsequent development of these sciences. </span></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></b></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-55727754078413583542011-02-07T01:34:00.000+06:002011-02-07T01:34:33.613+06:00Biography of Sir Alexander Fleming<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSBzKYG1U4sSkPYGQbopoGgzNHDV3ThvsusuLpBPP2jTq2w4r8vjyrRQSCCvvaWpTD9W625Nq5HcOVmwSBYl-dCcScS_-tg5E32thqsUjkAKRgfjrFcST9l1tM-SniQ_gz9GA6Xx0MWkRs/s1600/PAT_Alexander_Fleming.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSBzKYG1U4sSkPYGQbopoGgzNHDV3ThvsusuLpBPP2jTq2w4r8vjyrRQSCCvvaWpTD9W625Nq5HcOVmwSBYl-dCcScS_-tg5E32thqsUjkAKRgfjrFcST9l1tM-SniQ_gz9GA6Xx0MWkRs/s200/PAT_Alexander_Fleming.jpg" width="197" /> </a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br />
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</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)</b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Scottish bacteriologist best known for his discovery of penicillin. Fleming had a genius for technical ingenuity and original observation. His work on wound infection and lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme found in tears and saliva, guaranteed him a place in the history of bacteriology. But it was his discovery of penicillin in 1928, which started the antibiotic revolution, that sealed his lasting reputation. Fleming was recognized for this achievement in 1945, when he received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, along with Australian pathologist Howard Walter Florey and British biochemist Ernst Boris Chain, both of whom isolated and purified penicillin.</span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><h2 id="280654" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Education and early career</span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Fleming was the seventh of eight children of a Scottish hill farmer (third of four children from the farmer's second wife). His country upbringing in southwestern Scotland sharpened his capacities for observation and appreciation of the natural world at an early age. He began his elementary schooling at Loudoun Moor and then moved on to a larger school at Darvel before enrolling in Kilmarnock Academy in 1894. In 1895 he moved to London to live with his elder brother Thomas (who worked as an oculist) and completed his basic education at Regent Street Polytechnic.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After working as a London shipping clerk, Fleming began his medical studies at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School in 1901, funded by a scholarship and a legacy from his uncle. There he won the 1908 gold medal as top medical student at the University of London. At first he planned to become a surgeon, but a temporary position in the laboratories of the Inoculation Department at St. Mary's Hospital persuaded him that his future lay in the new field of bacteriology. There he came under the influence of bacteriologist and immunologist Sir Almroth Edward Wright, whose ideas of vaccine therapy seemed to offer a revolutionary direction in medical treatment.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Between 1909 and 1914, Fleming established a successful private practice as a venereologist, and in 1915 he married Sarah Marion McElroy, an Irish nurse. Fleming's son, Robert, born in 1924, followed his father into medicine. Fleming was one of the first doctors in Britain to administer arsphenamine (Salvarsan), a drug effective against syphilis that was discovered by German scientist Paul Ehrlich in 1910. During World War I, Fleming had a commission in the Royal Army Medical Corps and worked as a bacteriologist studying wound infections in a laboratory that Wright had set up in a military hospital housed in a casino in Boulogne, France. There he demonstrated that the use of strong antiseptics on wounds did more harm than good and recommended that the wounds simply be kept clean with a mild saline solution. Returning to St. Mary's after the war, Fleming was promoted to assistant director of the Inoculation Department. Years later, in 1946, he succeeded Wright as principal of the department, which was renamed the Wright-Fleming Institute.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In November 1921 Fleming discovered lysozyme, an enzyme present in body fluids such as saliva and tears that has a mild antiseptic effect. This was the first of his major discoveries. It came about when he had a cold and a drop of his nasal mucus fell onto a culture plate of bacteria. Realizing that his mucus might have an effect on bacterial growth, he mixed the mucus into the culture and a few weeks later saw signs of the bacteria having been dissolved. Fleming's study of lysozyme, which he considered his best work as a scientist, was a significant contribution to the understanding of how the body fights infection. Unfortunately, lysozyme had no effect on the most pathogenic bacteria.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><h2 id="280655" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Discovery of penicillin</span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On Sept. 3, 1928, shortly after his appointment as professor of bacteriology, Fleming noticed that a culture plate of Staphylococcus aureus he had been working on had become contaminated by a fungus. A mold, later identified as Penicillium notatum (also called P. chrysogenum), had inhibited the growth of the bacteria. He at first called the substance “mould juice” and then “penicillin,” after the mold that produced it. Fleming decided to investigate further, because he thought that he had found an enzyme more potent than lysozyme. In fact, it was not an enzyme but an antibiotic—one of the first to be discovered. By the time Fleming had established this, he was interested in penicillin for itself. Very much the lone researcher with an eye for the unusual, Fleming had the freedom to pursue anything that interested him. While this approach was ideal for taking advantage of a chance observation, the therapeutic development of penicillin required multidisciplinary teamwork. Fleming, working with two young researchers, failed to stabilize and purify penicillin. However, he did point out that penicillin had clinical potential, both as a topical antiseptic and as an injectable antibiotic, if it could be isolated and purified.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Penicillin eventually came into use during World War II as the result of the work of a team of scientists led by Howard Florey at the University of Oxford. Though Florey, his coworker Ernst Chain, and Fleming shared the 1945 Nobel Prize, their relationship was clouded due to the issue of who should gain the most credit for penicillin. Fleming's role was emphasized by the press because of the romance of his chance discovery and his greater willingness to speak to journalists.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Fleming was knighted in 1944. In 1949 his first wife, who had changed her name to Sareen, died. In 1953, two years prior to his death, Fleming married Greek microbiologist Amalia Coutsouris-Voureka, who had been involved in the Greek resistance movement during World War II and had been Fleming's colleague since 1946, when she enrolled at St. Mary's Hospital on a scholarship. For the last decade of his life, Fleming was feted universally for his discovery of penicillin and acted as a world ambassador for medicine and science. Initially a shy, uncommunicative man and a poor lecturer, he blossomed under the attention he received, becoming one of the world's best-known scientists.</span></div><span class="authcr"></span><span id="goog_849197117"></span><span id="goog_849197118"></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-72332652344551500852011-02-06T14:24:00.000+06:002011-02-06T14:24:57.178+06:00Biography of Bhaskaracharya<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9fS4rrRM1IptZrG84414CLOuW67wVOQ4Ogv6VeDr8YTj6pXwU4di7XoZbbiNIxrmXj0wxOYUe0gRy4ybX_bPDPEuikg3qFQNF87hg2ybU46v61kcxFVGt3DXtGPtwT5v0esvX0me-n_5U/s1600/2004061101720401.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9fS4rrRM1IptZrG84414CLOuW67wVOQ4Ogv6VeDr8YTj6pXwU4di7XoZbbiNIxrmXj0wxOYUe0gRy4ybX_bPDPEuikg3qFQNF87hg2ybU46v61kcxFVGt3DXtGPtwT5v0esvX0me-n_5U/s200/2004061101720401.jpg" width="182" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Bhaskaracharya (1114-1185)</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Bhaskara<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1970299_0-0"><span></span><span></span></sup> (1114–1185), also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya ("Bhaskara the teacher"), was an Indian mathematician and an astronomer. He was born near Bijjada Bida</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">which is in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka, India. Bhaskara was the head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical center of ancient India. His predecessors in this post had included both the noted Indian mathematicians Brahmagupta and Varahamihira. He lived in the Sahyadri region.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1970299_0-1"><span></span><span></span></sup><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Bhaskara and his works represent a significant contribution to mathematical and astronomical knowledge in the 12th century. He has been called the greatest mathematician of medieval India.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChopra198252.E2.80.9354_1-0"><span></span><span></span></sup> His main work was the Siddhanta Siromani which is divided in to four parts called LilavatiBijaganita, Grahaganita and Goladhyaya.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoulose199179_2-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulose199179-2"><span></span><span></span></a></sup> Siddhanta Siromani is Sanskrit for "Crown of treatises".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlofker200971_3-0"><span></span><span></span></sup> The English translations of four titles are "Dealing with Arithmetic", Algebra. "Mathematics of the planets" and Sphere respectively. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bhaskara's work on calculus predates Newton and Leibniz by half a millennium.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeal191580_4-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeal191580-4"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESarkar191823_5-0" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarkar191823-5"><span></span><span></span></a></sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> He is particularly known in the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems and computations. While Newton and Leibniz have been credited with differential and integral calculus, there is strong evidence to suggest that Bhaskara was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus. He was perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus.</span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;">Family</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Bhaskara was born into a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmin community.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChopra198252_7-0"><span></span><span></span></sup> History records his great-great-great-grandfather holding a hereditary post as a court scholar, as did his son and other descendants. His father Mahesvara<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPingree1970299_0-2"><span></span></sup> was as an astrologer, who taught him mathematics, which he later passed on to his son Loksamudra. Loksamudra's son helped to set up a school in 1207 for the study of Bhāskara's writings.</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Mathematics</span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Some of Bhaskara's contributions to mathematics include the following:</span></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in two different ways and then canceling out terms to get <i>a</i>² + <i>b</i>² = <i>c</i>².</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">In <i>Lilavati</i>, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations are explained.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type <i>ax</i>² + <i>b</i> = <i>y</i>²).</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations (<i>Kuttaka</i>). The rules he gives are (in effect) the same as those given by the Renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">A cyclic Chakravala method for solving indeterminate equations of the form <i>ax</i>² + <i>bx</i> + <i>c</i> = <i>y</i>. The solution to this equation was traditionally attributed to William Brouncker in 1657, though his method was more difficult than the <i>chakravala</i> method.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The first general method for finding the solutions of the problem <i>x</i>² − <i>ny</i>² = 1 (so-called "Pell's equation") was given by Bhaskara II.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStillwell199974_9-0"><span></span><span></span></sup></span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solutions of Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61<i>x</i>² + 1 = <i>y</i>². This very equation was posed as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, but its solution was unknown in Europe until the time of Euler in the 18th century.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown, and found negative and irrational solutions.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Preliminary concept of mathematical analysis.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with notable contributions towards integral calculus.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Conceived differential calculus, after discovering the derivative and differential coefficient.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Stated Rolle's theorem, a special case of one of the most important theorems in analysis, the mean value theorem. Traces of the general mean value theorem are also found in his works.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae. (See Calculus section below.)</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="text-align: left;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">In <i>Siddhanta Shiromani</i>, Bhaskara developed spherical trigonometry along with a number of other trigonometric results. (See Trigonometry section below.)</span></b></li>
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Arithmetic</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Bhaskara's arithmetic text Lilavati covers the topics of definitions, arithmetical terms, interest computation, arithmetical and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the shadow of the gnomon, methods to solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Lilavati is divided into 13 chapters and covers many branches of mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and a little trigonometry and mensuration. More specifically the contents include:</span></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Definitions.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Properties of zero (including division, and rules of operations with zero).</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Further extensive numerical work, including use of negative numbers and surds.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Estimation of π.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Arithmetical terms, methods of multiplication, and squaring.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inverse rule of three, and rules of 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Problems involving interest and interest computation.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Arithmetical and geometrical progressions.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Plane (geometry).</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Solid geometry.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Permutations and combinations.</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Indeterminate equations (Kuttaka), integer solutions (first and second order). His contributions to this topic are particularly important, since the rules he gives are (in effect) the same as those given by the renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century, yet his work was of the 12th century. Bhaskara's method of solving was an improvement of the methods found in the work of Aryabhata and subsequent mathematicians.</b></span></li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His work is outstanding for its systemisation, improved methods and the new topics that he has introduced. Furthermore the Lilavati contained excellent recreative problems and it is thought that Bhaskara's intention may have been that a student of 'Lilavati' should concern himself with the mechanical application of the method.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Algebra</span></span></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His Bijaganita ("Algebra") was a work in twelve chapters. It was the first text to recognize that a positive number has two square roots (a positive and negative square root). His work Bijaganita </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">is effectively a treatise on algebra and contains the following topics:</span></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Positive and negative numbers.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Zero.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The 'unknown' (includes determining unknown quantities).</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Determining unknown quantities.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Surds (includes evaluating surds).</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Kuttaka</i> (for solving indeterminate equations and Diophantine equations).</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Simple equations (indeterminate of second, third and fourth degree).</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Simple equations with more than one unknown.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax² + b = y²).</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solutions of indeterminate equations of the second, third and fourth degree.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Quadratic equations.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Quadratic equations with more than one unknown.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Operations with products of several unknowns.</span></b></li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Bhaskara derived a cyclic, chakravala method for solving indeterminate quadratic equations of the form ax² + bx + c = y. Bhaskara's method for finding the solutions of the problem Nx² + 1 = y² (the so-called "Pell's equation") is of considerable importance.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStillwell199974_9-1"><span></span><span></span></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He gave the general solutions of :</span></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pell's equation using the <i>chakravala</i> method.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The indeterminate quadratic equation using the <i>chakravala</i> method.</span></b></li>
</ul><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">He also solved :</span></span><br />
<ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Cubic equations.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Quartic equations.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Indeterminate cubic equations.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Indeterminate quartic equations.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Indeterminate higher-order polynomial equations.</span></b></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Trigonometri</b></span><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Siddhanta Shiromani (written in 1150) demonstrates Bhaskara's knowledge of trigonometry, including the sine table and relationships between different trigonometric functions. He also discovered spherical trigonometry, along with other interesting trigonometrical </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">results. In particular Bhaskara seemed more interested in trigonometry for its own sake than his predecessors who saw it only as a tool for calculation. Among the many interesting results given by Bhaskara, discoveries first found in his works include the now well known results for :</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sin (a+b) and Sin (a-b)</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Calculus</span></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His work, the Siddhanta Shiromani, is an astronomical treatise and contains many theories not found in earlier works. Preliminary concepts of infinitesimal calculus and mathematical analysis, along with a number of results in trigonometry, differential calculus and integral calculus that are found in the work are of particular interest.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Evidence suggests Bhaskara was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus. It seems, however, that he did not understand the utility of his researches, and thus historians of mathematics generally neglect this achievement. Bhaskara also goes deeper into the 'differential calculus' and suggests the differential coefficient vanishes at an extremum value of the function, indicating knowledge of the concept of 'infinitesimals'.</span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShukla198495.E2.80.93104_10-0"><span></span><span></span></sup><br />
<ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">There is evidence of an early form of Rolle's theorem in his work: </span></b><ul><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">If <img alt=" f\left(a\right) = f\left(b\right) = 0 " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/e/4/5e46cb538e797d49c8b331ea2d29709f.png" /> then <img alt=" f'\left(x\right) = 0 " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/d/2/6/d2674e7bfef0ca707c636962a576d994.png" /> for some <img alt="\ x " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/b/c/5/bc518bd42e0cfa424357a26712828988.png" /> with <img alt="\ a < x < b " class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/5/b/7/5b79da1eb3d7912d48039cc651232526.png" /></span></b></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">He gave the result that if <img alt="x \approx y" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/e/d/8ed940ee94cdd331c9ae9a469e5b3a0d.png" /> then <img alt="\sin(y) - \sin(x) \approx (y - x)\cos(y)" class="tex" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/0/d/e/0de18c2127adedb962dff19cee11aa21.png" />, thereby finding the derivative of sine, although he never developed the notion of derivatives.</span></b></li>
</ul><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke1997213.E2.80.93215_11-0" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span></span></sup></span></b><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECooke1997213.E2.80.93215_11-0"><span></span></sup>Bhaskara uses this result to work out the position angle of the ecliptic, a quantity required for accurately predicting the time of an eclipse.</span></b> </li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">In computing the instantaneous motion of a planet, the time interval between successive positions of the planets was no greater than a <i>truti</i>, or a <span class="template-frac">1⁄33750</span> of a second, and his measure of velocity was expressed in this infinitesimal unit of time.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">He was aware that when a variable attains the maximum value, its differential vanishes.</span></b></li>
</ul><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">He also showed that when a planet is at its farthest from the earth, or at its closest, the equation of the centre (measure of how far a planet is from the position in which it is predicted to be, by assuming it is to move uniformly) vanishes. He therefore concluded that for some intermediate position the differential of the equation of the centre is equal to zero. In this result, there are traces of the general mean value theorem, one of the most important theorems in analysis, which today is usually derived from Rolle's theorem. The mean value theorem was later found by Parameshvara in the 15th century in the <i>Lilavati Bhasya</i>, a commentary on Bhaskara's <i>Lilavati</i>.</span></b></li>
</ul><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Madhava (1340–1425) and the Kerala School mathematicians (including Parameshvara) from the 14th century to the 16th century expanded on Bhaskara's work and further advanced the development of calculus in India.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Astronomy</b></span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Using an astronomical model developed by Brahmagupta in the 7th century, Bhaskara accurately defined many astronomical quantities, including, for example, the length of the sidereal year, the time that is required for the Earth to orbit the Sun, as 365.2588 days</span> which is same as in Suryasiddhanta. The modern accepted measurement is 365.2563 days, a difference of just 3.5 minutes.</span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His mathematical astronomy text Siddhanta Shiromani is written in two parts: the first part on mathematical astronomy and the second part on the sphere.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The twelve chapters of the first part cover topics such as:</span></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Mean longitudes of the planets.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">True longitudes of the planets.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The three problems of diurnal rotation.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Syzygies.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Lunar eclipses.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Solar eclipses.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Latitudes of the planets.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sunrise equation</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Moon's crescent.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Conjunctions of the planets with each other.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The patas of the Sun and Moon.</span></b></li>
</ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The second part contains thirteen chapters on the sphere. It covers topics such as:</div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Praise of study of the sphere.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Nature of the sphere.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Cosmography and geography.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Planetary mean motion.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Eccentric epicyclic model of the planets.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The armillary sphere.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Spherical trigonometry.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ellipse calculations.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from September 2009"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"> </a></i></sup></span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">First visibilities of the planets.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Calculating the lunar crescent.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Astronomical instruments.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">The seasons.</span></b></li>
<li><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Problems of astronomical calculations.</span></b></li>
</ul><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Engineering</span></span></span></b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The earliest reference to a perpetual motion machine date back to 1150, when Bhāskara II described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhite197852.E2.80.9353_12-0"><span></span><span></span></sup></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Bhāskara II used a measuring device known as Yasti-yantra. This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESelin2008269.E2.80.93273_13-0"><span></span><span></span></sup></span></div><b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Legends</span></span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</span></span></span></b><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His book on arithmetic is the source of interesting legends that assert that it was written for his daughter, Lilavati. In one of these stories, which is found in a Persian translation of Lilavati, Bhaskara II studied Lilavati's horoscope and predicted that her husband would die soon after the marriage if the marriage did not take place at a particular time. To alert his daughter at the correct time, he placed a cup with a small hole at the bottom of a vessel filled with water, arranged so that the cup would sink at the beginning of the propitious hour. He put the device in a room with a warning to Lilavati to not go near it. In her curiosity though, she went to look at the device and a pearl from her nose ring accidentally dropped into it, thus upsetting it. The marriage took place at the wrong time and she was soon widowed.</span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Bhaskara II conceived the modern mathematical convention that when a finite number is divided by zero, the result is infinity. In his book </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lilavati</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, he reasons: "In this quantity also which has zero as its divisor there is no change even when many [quantities] have entered into it or come out [of it], just as at the time of destruction and creation when throngs of creatures enter into and come out of [him, there is no change in] the infinite and unchanging [Vishnu]".</span></span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEColebrooke1817_14-0"><span></span><span></span></sup><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></span></span></b><br />
<div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-size: small;"> </span> </b></span></div></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-63381323527212581862011-02-06T00:55:00.000+06:002011-02-06T00:55:55.907+06:00Biography of Nepoleon Bonaparte<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0hzNKqX3qWqymfk44ChxyC8HycEiTkk6gH58UOZ9aHJy4_ZsF1Y5u1Sw5TVUsY3-wIN8quIHy_DbwGipZtIYIOhFJlJBQZvIaweuZkR94MlLtJRsQhjGPZr6e7gQAitixHK4c1_64OxVr/s1600/261692-1209-41.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0hzNKqX3qWqymfk44ChxyC8HycEiTkk6gH58UOZ9aHJy4_ZsF1Y5u1Sw5TVUsY3-wIN8quIHy_DbwGipZtIYIOhFJlJBQZvIaweuZkR94MlLtJRsQhjGPZr6e7gQAitixHK4c1_64OxVr/s200/261692-1209-41.jpg" width="183" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Nepoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in thought for a century.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Birth in Corsica</b></span><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15th 1769 to Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer and political opportunist, and his wife, Marie-Letizia. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were poor and pretentious. A combination of Carlo's social climbing, Letizia's adultery with the Comte de Marbeuf - Corsica's French military governor - and Napoleon's own ability enabled him to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Early Career: The Corsican Misadventure</b></span><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule bending, as well as the effects of the French Revolution and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte. Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name: Bonaparte. Historians have frequently used the Corsican affair as a microcosm of Napoleon's career.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Early Career: Fluctuating Success</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favoured individuals could achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went. By December 1793 Bonaparte was the hero of Toulon, a General and favourite of Augustin Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason. Tremendous political 'flexibility' saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Baras, soon to be one of France's three 'Directors', followed. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to the political spine of France. Bonaparte swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military authorities - largely by never keeping his opinions to himself - and he married Josephine de Beauharnais. Commentators have considered this an unusual match ever since.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Napoleon and The Army of Italy</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1796 France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy - the post he wanted - whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory after victory against, theoretically stronger, Austrian opponents. Aside from the Battle of Arcole, where Napoleon was lucky rather than clever, the campaign is legitimately legendary. Napoleon returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly to the newspapers he now ran.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Failure in the Middle East, Power in France</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In May 1798 Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their famous general might seize power. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave - some might say abandon - his army and return in the August of 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">First Consul</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The transfer of power might not have been smooth - owing much to luck and apathy - but Napoleon's great political skill was clear; by February 1800 he was established as the First Consul, a practical dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key triumph - the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800 - was won by the French General Desaix. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">From Reformer to Emperor</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace Bonaparte began working on France, reforming the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education and government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while travelling with the army, and the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited an undeniable skill as both legislator and statesmen - a study of these achievements could rival those of his campaigns for size and depth - but many have argued that this talent was deeply flawed and even fervent supporters admit that Napoleon made mistakes. The Consul's popularity remained high - helped by his mastery of propaganda, but also genuine national support - and he was elected Consulate for life by the French people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which Bonaparte worked hard to maintain and glorify.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">A Return to War</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Nevertheless, Europe was not at peace for long. Napoleon's fame, ambitions and character were based on conquest, making it almost inevitable that his reorganised </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Grande Armée</i> would fight further wars. However, other European countries also sought conflict, for not only did they distrust and fear Bonaparte, they also retained their hostility towards revolutionary France. If either side has sought peace, the battles would still have continued. </span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">For the next eight years Napoleon dominated Europe, fighting and defeating a range of alliances involving combinations of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia. Sometimes his victories were crushing - such as Austerlitz in 1805, often cited as the greatest military victory ever - and on other occasions he was either very lucky, fought almost to a standstill, or both; Wagram stands as an example of the latter. Bonaparte forged new states in Europe, including the German Confederation - built from the ruins of the Holy Roman Empire - and the Duchy of Warsaw, whilst also installing his family and favourites in positions of great power: Murat became King of Naples and Bernadotte King of Sweden, the latter in spite of his frequent treachery and failure. The reforms continued and Bonaparte had an ever-increasing effect on culture and technology, becoming a patron of both the arts and sciences while stimulating creative responses across Europe. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Napoleon’s Failings</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Napoleon also made mistakes and suffered setbacks. The French navy was kept firmly in check by their British equivalent and the Emperor's attempt to tame Britain through economics - the Continental System - harmed France and her supposed allies greatly. Bonaparte's interference in Spain caused even larger problems, as the Spanish refused to accept Napoleon's brother Joseph as ruler, instead fighting a vicious guerilla war against the French invaders.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Spanish 'ulcer' highlights another problem of Bonaparte's reign: he couldn't be everywhere within his empire at once, and the forces he sent to pacify Spain failed, as they often did elsewhere. Meanwhile, British forces gained a toehold in Portugal, slowly fighting their way across the peninsula and drawing ever more troops and resources from France itself. Nevertheless, these were Napoleon's glory days, and on March 11th 1810 he married his second wife, Marie-Louise; his only legitimate child - Napoleon II - was born just over a year later, on March 20th 1811.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1812: Napoleon’s Disaster in Russia</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Napoleonic Empire may have shown signs of decline by 1811, including a downturn in diplomatic fortunes and continuing failure in Spain, but such matters were overshadowed by what happened next. In 1812 Napoleon went to war with Russia, assembling a force of over 400,000 soldiers, accompanied by the same number of followers and support. Such an army was almost impossible to feed or adequately control and the Russians repeatedly retreated, destroying the local resources and separating Bonaparte from his supplies. </span></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Emperor continually dithered, eventually reaching Moscow on September 8th after the Battle of Borodino, a bludgeoning conflict where over 80,000 soldiers died. However, the Russians refused to surrender, instead torching Moscow and forcing Napoleon into a long retreat back to friendly territory. The Grande Armée was assailed by starvation, extremes of weather and terrifying Russian partisans throughout, and by the end of 1812 only 10,000 soldiers were able to fight. Many of the rest had died in horrible conditions, with the camp's followers faring even worse. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In the final half of 1812 Napoleon had destroyed most of his army, suffered a humiliating retreat, made an enemy of Russia, obliterated France's stock of horses and shattered his reputation. A coup had been attempted in his absence and his enemies in Europe were re-invigorated, forming a grand alliance intent on removing him. As vast numbers of enemy soldiers advanced across Europe towards France, over-turning the states Bonaparte had created, the Emperor raised, equipped and fielded a new army. This was a remarkable achievement but the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria and others just used a simple plan, retreating from the emperor himself and advancing again when he moved to face the next threat. </span></span> <br />
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<b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">1813-1814 and Abdication</b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Throughout 1813 and into 1814 the pressure grew on Napoleon; not only were his enemies grinding his forces down and approaching Paris, but the British had fought out of Spain and into France, the Grande Armée's Marshalls were underperforming and Bonaparte had lost the French public's support. Nevertheless, for the first half of 1814 Napoleon exhibited the military genius of his youth, but it was a war he couldn't win alone. On March 30th, 1814, Paris surrendered to allied forces without a fight and, facing massive betrayal and impossible military odds, Napoleon abdicated as Emperor of France; he was exiled to the Island of Elba. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The 100 Days and Exile</b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Undoubtedly bored and aware of the continuing discontent in France, Napoleon made a sensational return to power in 1815. Travelling to France in secret, he attracted vast support and reclaimed his Imperial throne, as well as re-organising the army and government. This was anathema to his enemies and after a series of initial engagements Bonaparte was narrowly defeated in one of history's greatest battles: Waterloo. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">This final adventure had occurred in less than 100 days, closing with Napoleon's second abdication on June 25th 1815, whereupon British forces forced him into further exile. Housed on St. Helena, a small rocky island well away from Europe, Napoleon's health and character fluctuated; he died within six years, on May 5th 1821, aged 51. The causes of his death have been debated ever since, and conspiracy theories involving poison are rife.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Conclusion</b><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Simple narratives of Napleon's life can fill whole books, let alone detailed discussions of his achievements, and historians remain divided over the Emperor: was he a cruel tyrant or an enlightened despot? Was he a tortured genius or a blunderer with luck on his side? These discussions are unlikely to be resolved, thanks partly to the weight of source material - making it unlikely that a historian could truly master everything - and Napoleon himself. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He is, and remains, so fascinating precisely because he was such a massive blend of contradictions - itself prohibiting conclusions - and because of the massive effect he had on Europe: no one should forget that he helped first perpetuate, then actively create, a state of European wide-warfare that lasted for twenty years. Few individuals have ever had such a huge effect on the world, on economics, politics, technology, culture and society, making Bonaparte's life more fantastic than any believable fiction. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Nevertheless, it is possible to attempt a small summary on his character: Napoleon may not have been a general of utter genius, but he was very good; he may not have been the best politician of his age, but he was often superb; he may not have been a perfect legislator, but his contributions were hugely important. Whether you admire him or hate him, the real and undoubted genius of Napoleon, the qualities that have drawn praise such as Promethean, was to combine all these talents, to have somehow - be it luck, talent or force of will - risen from chaos, then built, steered and spectacularly destroyed an empire before doing it all again in a tiny microcosm one year later. Whether hero or tyrant, the reverberations were felt across Europe for a century. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Notable Family of Napoleon Bonaparte:</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Father:</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Carlo Buonaparte (1746-85)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Mother:</span><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </b> <span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Marie-Letizia Bonaparte, née Ramolino and Buonaparte (1750 - 1835) </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Siblings:</span><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Joseph Bonaparte, originally Giuseppe Buonaparte (1768 - 1844) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Lucien Bonaparte, originally Luciano Buonaparte (1775 - 1840) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Elisa Bacciochi, née Maria Anna Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1777 - 1820) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Louis Bonaparte, originally Luigi Buonaparte (1778 - 1846) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /> <span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Pauline Borghese, née Maria Paola/Paoletta Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1780 - 1825) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Caroline Murat, née Maria Annunziata Buonaparte/Bonaparte (1782 - 1839) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Jérôme Bonaparte, originally Girolamo Buonaparte (1784 - 1860) </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Wives:</span><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Josephine Bonaparte, née de la Pagerie and Beauharnais (1763 - 1814) </span><br style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;" /><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Marie-Louise Bonaparte, formally of Austria, later von Neipperg (1791 - 1847) </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Notable Lovers:</span><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> Countess Marie Walewska (d. 1817)</span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Legitimate Children:<b> </b> Napoleon II (1811 - 1832) </div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-27123098501492574212011-02-05T15:52:00.002+06:002011-02-06T01:18:57.544+06:00Biography of Thyagaraja<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWSnZyVaLqtsgHx2O1UKt2VqHN-R-eKzRTyQq6Sv2xTu805vD4ZjYaucEOGQMOI-59WeFxnbv4K0HuW9zHg0U5F417zXqnQM5ib9-x2iChcwrzDO7_ejJW_NPt5vfzGPi4fnORq9Sy4u0i/s1600/thyagaraja-swami.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWSnZyVaLqtsgHx2O1UKt2VqHN-R-eKzRTyQq6Sv2xTu805vD4ZjYaucEOGQMOI-59WeFxnbv4K0HuW9zHg0U5F417zXqnQM5ib9-x2iChcwrzDO7_ejJW_NPt5vfzGPi4fnORq9Sy4u0i/s200/thyagaraja-swami.jpg" width="146" /></a></div><br />
<br />
<b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Biography of Thyagaraja (1767-1847)</span></b><br />
<br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i> <span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><b>“</b><i><span style="font-style: normal;">Sri Thyagaraja was born on 4th May 1767. He belonged to Bharadwaja gotra and Kakarla Vamsha. His great grandfather Panchanadabrahmam had 5 sons, one of whom was Girirajabrahmam. Girirajabrahmam also had five sons. The fifth one was Ramabrahmam, who had three sons. The eldest was Panchapakesan, named after the presiding deity at Tiruvaiyyaru. Second son was Ramanthan. He died very young. Thyagaraja was the third son and was born in Tiruvarur. It is said that before his birth, both his parents had an identical dream about a son being born who would be an amsha of Narada, Valmiki and Sharada and who would go on to become an expert in sangItam and sAhitya. They also were told in the dream that they should name him after the deity of Tiruvarur i.e., Thyagaraja. It is said that a serious ailment struck Thyagaraja when he was five. At that time a sanyasi visited them and assured his parents of his recovery and of his becoming as famous as Purandaradasa and Jayadeva.</span></i></span></i></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Thyagaraja is said to have studied Telugu and Sanskrit from his father and Purandaradasa and Vijayagopala songs from his mother. His maternal grandfather was Veena Kalahasti Iyer, a samasthana vidwan at Tanjore court. Sri Thyagaraja learnt classical music and veena from Sonti Venkataramana Das. Tulaja II invited Ramabrahmam to give exposition on Valmiki Ramayanam during the Ramanavami festival. Young Thyagaraja used to read the shlokas from Valmiki Ramayanam while his father used to give the exposition. Thus Thyagaraja imbibed all that was being narrated by his father about Valmiki Ramayanam at a very young age itself.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sri Ramakrishnananda, a friend of Thyagaraja’s father, gave him updaesha on the shaDAkshari mantra. (Dr. Prameela said that after wondering what could be the shaDAkshari mantra, it dawned on her that it should have been “<i>namO rAghavAya</i>“. Sri Thyagaraja had composed his first song “<i>namO namO rAghavAya</i>” in <i>dEsya tODi</i> using this shaDAkshari mantra). Thyagaraja received the <i>tAraka mantra </i>upadEsha from his father. He also got an idol of Lord Rama from his father, which he worshipped daily.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sri Thyagaraja never had Shiva-Vaishnava bheda. He coined the name rAmA by taking<i> ra </i>from <i>Om namO nA<b>rA</b>yaNA </i>and <i>mA </i>from <i>oM na<b>ma</b> shivAya </i>(in the kriti <i>evarani</i><i>d EvAmrutavarshani</i>). Though his Isa Ta Devata<i></i> was Lord Rama, he has mentioned Lord Shiva in many of his kritis.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">If one has to know Thyagaraja, one has to go deep into his compositions. One can understand his personality and his mind by reading the text of the songs and understanding their meaning.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"><i><span style="font-style: normal;"></span></i></span></i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Sri Thyagaraja was a trend setter in the use of simple words for his compositions, which is probably why we compare his compositions to “</span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">drAkSa rasa</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">” – we can immediately feel the taste, the moment we put a </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">drAkSa</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (grape) in our mouth.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The Svararnava</b></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Thyaaraja is believed to have had access to many works on music very early in his life, such as <i>Sangita Ratnakara</i>, <i>Naradiyam</i>, a work dealing with 72 mELAs and <i>Svararnava</i>. It is said that one day when Sri Thyagaraja was doing some puja in his house, a saint came by. Thyagaraja wanted to give him a sumptuous lunch. The saint said he will leave his belongings at Thyagaraja’s house and go to the Cauvery to have a bath. The saint never returned in person but came that night in Thyagaraja’s dream as the sage Narada, instructing Thyagaraja to open the belongings left behind and use the rare manuscripts present inside. This was how Sri Thyagaraja came to possess important works like the <i>Svararnava</i>.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Thyagaraja refers to the <i>Svararnava</i> saying Shiva, the Lord of Kailash, narrated the secrets of <i>Svararnava</i> to Devi Parvati and that these were revealed to Thyagaraja. In one of the caraNams in <i>svara rAga sudhA</i> (<i>shankarAbharaNam</i>), he says “<i>rajata girIshuDu nagajaku delpu <b style="font-weight: normal;">svararnava</b> marmamulu vijayamu gala tyAgarAjuDErugE vishvAsinci delusukO O manasa</i>“. The <i>Svararnava</i> is said to have vanished after Thyagaraja attained siddhi.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Svararnava</i> is said to have been a broad palm leaf manuscript written in grantha characters. It is said that Thyagaraja got <i>Svararnava</i> through divine association. Thyagaraja preserved it in his puja room and only he had access to it. Occasionally, he read certain portions from it to some of his close disciples, who memorized some <i>shlokAs</i> of the Svararnava. It is said that one of his students named Singaracharyulu published some of these <i>shlOkAs</i> in his book <i>Gayakalochana</i>, without disclosing the source. A section of <i>Svararnava</i> was titled <i>Svara Raga Sudha Grantha</i>. May be Thyagaraja got inspired by this and composed the <i>shankarAbharaNam</i> kriti “<i>svara raga sudha</i>“.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Svararnava</i> also contained concepts like the production of <i>Ahata</i> (sound produced by human effort) and <i>anAhata</i> (sound emanating from within; can be heard only by those who have attained a high state of the mind through <i>sAdhanA</i>) nAdams. In many of his compositions, Thyagaraja gives references to the 7 notes and to how different sounds are produced in different parts of the body. In a section called <i>rAga vivEkA</i>, one finds ragas like <i>jayantashrI</i>, <i>kuntalavarALi</i>, <i>sArangakApi</i>, <i>mAlini makarandam</i> etc. In addition to <i>arOhaNa</i><i>avarOhaNa</i>, brief <i>sancaras</i> were given for many ragas. These ragas were presented in the order of the <i>mela</i>s."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">List of Kirthanas:</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His kritis, raga and in which tala is given,</span></div><div style="color: black;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ada Modi Galada,Charukesi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><a href="http://arunkrishnanc.wordpress.com/2006/03/09/lyrics/" target="_blank"> </a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Adaya Sri Raghuvara,Ahiri,Ad </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Adi Kadu Bhajana,Yadukalakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Adigi Sukhamu,Madhyamavati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Adugu Varamula,Arabhi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Alakalalla Lada,Madhyamavati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Amba Ninnu,Arabhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Amma Dharma Samvardhani,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Amma Ravamma,Kalyani,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ananda Sagara,Garudadhvani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Anandamanandamayenu,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Anathudanu Ganu,Jingla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Andundakane,Pantuvarali,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Anupama Gunambudhi,Atana,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Anuragamu Leni,Saraswati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Anyayamu Seyakura,Kapi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Aparadhamula,Darbar,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b> </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Aparadhamulanu,Vanavali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Appa Ramabhakti,Pantuvarali,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Aragimpave,Todi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Atade Dhanyudura,Kapi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Atta Balukadu,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Atukaradani Palka,Manoranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Badalika Dira,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bagayanayya,Chandrajyoti,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Balamu Kulamu,Saveri,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bale Balendu Bhushani,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bantu Riti,Hamsanadam,Adi<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTGZEmn3BY4" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhajana Parula Kela,Surati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhajana Seya Rada,Atana,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhajana Seyave,Kalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhajare Raghuveeram,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhakti Biccha Miyyave,Sankarabharanam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhaktuni Charitramu,Begada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhavanuta,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhavasannutha,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Bhuvini Dasudane,Sri Ranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Brochuvarevare,Sri Ranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Brovabharama,Bahudari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Buddhi Radu,Sankarabharanam,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chakkani Rajamargamu,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chala Kallaladu,Arabhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chalamelara,Margahindolam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Challaga Nato,Vegavahini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chani Toditeve,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chede Buddhi,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chelimini Jalajakshu,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chentane Sada,Kuntalavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chera Ravademira,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chesinadella,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chetulara,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chinna Nade Na,Kalanidhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chintistunnade,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Chutamu Rare,Arabhi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dachuko Valena,Todi,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dandamu Bettedanura,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Daridapuleka,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Darini Telusukonti,Suddhasaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Darsannamu Seya,Narayanagowla,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dasaratha Nandana,Asaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dasarathi Ni Runamu,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Daya Juchutakidi Velara,Ganavaridhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Daya Rani Daya Rani,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Daya Seyavayya,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dayaleni Bradukemi,Nayaki,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dehi Tava Pada,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Deva Sritapastirtha,Madhyamavati,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Devadi Deva Sadasiva,Sindhunamakriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Devi Sri Tulasamma,Mayamalava Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dharanu Ni Saridaivamu,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dharmatma,Kedara Gowla,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dhyaname Varamaina,Dhanyasi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dinamani Vamsa,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dorakuna,Bilahari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dudukugala,Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Durmargachara,Ranjani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Dvaitamu Sukhama,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>E Papamu,Atana,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>E Ramuni Nammitino,Vakulabharanam,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>E Tavunara,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Edari Sancharintura,Kantamani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Edini Bahubala,Darbar,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Eduta Nilichite,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ehi Trijagadisa,Saranga,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ela Deliyalero,Darbar,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ela Nidaya,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Elavataram,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emanatichchedavo,Sahana,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emani Mataditivo,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emani Pogadudura,Viravasantam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emani Vegintune,Huseni,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emi Jesitenemi,Todi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emidova Balkuma,Saranga,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emineramu,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Emtanuchu,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enati Nomu Phalamo,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Endaro Mahanubhavulu,Sri Ragam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Endu Kougalintura,Suddha Desi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Endudagi Nado,Todi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enduki Chalamu,Sankarabharanam,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enduko Baga Teliyadu,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enduko Nimanasu,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enduku Dayaradura,Todi,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enduku Nirdaya,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Endundi Vedalitivo,Darbar,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennado Rakshinchite,Sowrashtra,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennadu Jutuno,Kalavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennaga Manasukurani,Nilambari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennallu Nitrova,Kapi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennallu Tirigedi,Malavasri,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/ennallu-tirigedi/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ennallu Urake,Pantuvarali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enta Bhagyamu,Saranga,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Enta Vedukontu,Saraswati Manohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entamuddo,Bindumalini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entani Ne,Mukhari,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entapapinaiti,Gowlipantu,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entarani Tanakenta,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entha Nerchina Entha Juchina,Suddha Dhanyasi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Entuku Peddalavale,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Epaniko Janminchitinani,Asaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Etavuna Nerchitivo,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Eti Janmamidi,Varali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Eti Yochanalu Jesetura,Kiranavali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Etla Dorakitivo,Vasanta,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Etula Brotuvo,Chakravakam,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Etula Gapaduduvo,Ahiri,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Etulaina Bhakti,Sama,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evaramadugudura,Kalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarani Nirnayimchirira,Devamritavarshini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarichchirira,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evariena Lera,Siddhasena,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarikai Avataram,Devamanohari,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarimata,Kambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarito Nedelpudu,Manavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evaru Teliya Boyyeru,Todi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evaru Teliyanu,Punnagavarali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarura Ninuvina,Mohanam,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evarunnaru Brova<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/evarunnaru-brova/" target="_blank"> </a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evidhamulanaina,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Evvare Ramayya,Gangeyabhushani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Garavimpa Rada,Ghanta,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Gati Nivani,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Gattiganu Nanu Chai,Begada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Giripai Nelakonna,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Giriraja Suta,Bangala,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Gitarthamu,Surati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Grahabalamemi,Revagupti,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Guruleka,Gowri Manohari,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Hari Yanuvani,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Haridasulu Vedalu,Yamuna Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Hechcharikaga,Yadukulakambhoji,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>I Vasudha,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ide Bhagyamu,Kannada,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Idi Samayamura,Chaya Nata,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Idiniku Mera Gadura,Punnagavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ika Gavalasina Demi,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ilalo Pranatarti,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Imemenu Galginanduku,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Induka Buttinchitivi,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Induka Ithanuvunu,Mukhari,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inka Daya Rakunte,Narayanagowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inka Yochana Aite,Ghanta,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Innalla Vale,Desya Todi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Innallu Nanneli,Ghanta,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Innalu,Narayana Gowla,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inta Bhagayamani Nirnayimpa,Punnagavarali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inta Soukhyamani,Kapi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Inta Tamasamaite,Saveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Intakanna Delpatarama,Saveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Intakanna Yanandamemi,Bilahari,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Intanuchu Varnimpa,Gundakriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Isa Pahi Mam,Kalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Itara Daivamula,Chayatarangini,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ivaraku Juchinati,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Jaya Jaya Sri Raghurama,Gowri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Je Je Sita Ram,Saveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Jnana Mosagarada,Shadvidhamargini,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kadalu Vadu Gade,Narayanagowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kadanuvariki,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kadatera Rada,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kalaharana Mela,Suddhasaveri,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kalala Nerchina,Dipaka,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kaligi Yunte Gade,Kiravani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kalinarulaku,Kuntalavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kaluguna Pada Niraja,Purna Lalita,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kamalapta Kula,Brindavanasaranga,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kanakana Ruchira,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kanna Talli,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kannatandri Napai,Devamanohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kanta Judumi,Latangi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kanugona Soukhyamu,Nayaki,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kanugontini,Bilahari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karmame Balavantamaya,Saveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karubaru Seyuvaru,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karuna Elagante,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karuna Judavamma,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karuna Judumayya,Saranga,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karuna Samudra,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karunajaladhe,Nathanamakriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karunajaladhi,Kedara Gowla,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karunarasakshaya,Ghanta,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Karuvelpulu,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kasicchede,Gowlipantu,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kattu Jesinavu,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Koluvai,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Koluvaiyunnade,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Koluvamare Gada,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Koniyadedu Nayeda,Kokiladhwani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kori Sevimparare,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Korivachchitinayya,Bilahari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kotinadulu,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kripa Juchutaku,Chayatarangini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kshinamai Tiruga,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kshirasagara,Devagandhari,Adi </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kulabirudu,Devamanohari,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Kuvalaya Dala Nayana,Natakuranji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lakshanamulu Gala,Suddhasaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lali Lalayya,Kedara Gowla,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lali Lali Yani,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lali Yugave,Nilambari,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lalite Sri Pravriddhe,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lavanya Rama,Rudrapriya,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lekana Ninnu,Asaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lilaganu Juchu,Divyamani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Lokavana Chatura,Begada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ma Janaki,Kambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Madilona Yochana,Kolahalam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mahita Pravriddha,Kambhoji,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Makelara Vicharamu,Ravichandrika,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mamava Raghurama,Saranga,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mamava Satatam,Jaganmohani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manamu Leda,Amir Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasa Etulortune,Malaya Marutam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasa Mana Samarthya,Vardhani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasa Sri Ramachandruni,Isamanohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasa Sri Ramuni Dayaleka,Mararanjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasu Nilpa Sakti,Abhogi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasu Svadhinamaina,Sankarabharanam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasu Vishaya Nata,Natakuranji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manasuloni Marmamu,Hindolam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manavi Nalagincha,Nalinakanthi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Manavini Vinuma,Jaya Narayani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mapala Velasi,Asaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Marachuvadana,Kedara,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Marakata Manivarna,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Maravakara,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mari Mari Ninne,Kambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mariyada Gadayya,Bhairavam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mariyada Gadura,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Marubalka Kunnavemira,Sri Ranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Marugelara,Jayantasri,Adi<i></i></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Matadavemi,Nilambari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mati Matiki Delpavalena,Mohanam,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Melu Melu,Sowrashtra,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Meluko Dayanidhi,Sowrashtra,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Melukovayya,Bhouli,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Menu Joochi Mosa,Sarasangi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Meru Samana Dhira,Mayamalava Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mitri Bhagyame,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mivalla Gunadosha,Kapi,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mohana Rama,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mokshamu Galada,Saramati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mosaboku Vinaye,Gowlipantu,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Muccata Brahmadulaku,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Muddu Momu,Suryakantam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mummurtulu,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Mundu Venuka,Darbar,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Munnu Ravana,Todi,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Munuppe Teliyaka,Bangala,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Muripemu Galige Gada,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nada Loludai,Kalyana Vasantam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nada Sudharasambilanu,Arabhi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nadachi Nadachi,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nadadinamata,Janaranjani,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nadatanumanisam,Chittaranjini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nadopasanache,Begada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nadupai Balikeru,Madhyamavati,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nagumomu Galavani,Madhyamavati,Adi </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nagumomu Ganaleni,Abheri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Najivadhara,Bilahari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nalina Lochana,Madhyamavati,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nama Kusumamulache,Sri Ragam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nammakane Mosapodu,Asaveri,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nammi Vachchina,Kalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nammina Varini Marachedi,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Namoralakimpavemi,Devagandhari,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Namoralanu Vini,Arabhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nannu Kanna Talli,Kesari,Adi<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gqus9ZDIBV4" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nannu Vidachi,Ritigowla,Chapu<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=42fL-9Cw7BY" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nannubrova,Abhogi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nanu brovakanu,Sankarabharanam,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nanu Palimpa,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Napali Sri Rama,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Narada Ganalola,Atana,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Naradaguruswami,Darbar,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Narayana Hari,Yamuna Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Narsimha Nannu,Bilahari,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Natha Brovave,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nati Mata Marachitivo,Devakriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nayeda Vanchana Seyakura,Nabhomani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ne Morabettite,Rupavati,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nee Daya Galgute,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nenarunchera Napaini,Simhavahini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nenarunchinanu,Malavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nenendu Vetukudura,Harikambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nepogadakunte,Desya Todi,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nerama Rama Rama,Sowrashtra,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Chittamu Na Bhagyamu,Vijayavasantam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Chittamu Nischalamu,Dhanyasi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Dayache Rama,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Muddu Momu,Kamala Manohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Namarupamulaku,Sowrashtra,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Vada Negana,Saranga,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ni Vera Kula Dhanamu,Begada,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nibhajana Gana,Nayaki,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nibhakti Bhagya,Jayamanohari,Rupaka<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/ni-bhakthi-bhagya/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nidasanu Dasu,Amir Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nidaya Rada,Vasanta Bhairavi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nidayache Rama Nityanandu,Yadukulakambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nidayaya Ravalegaka,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nidhi Chala Sukhama,Kalyani,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nijamarmamulanu,Umabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nijamuga Nimahimalu,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nike Daya Raka,Nilambari,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nike Teliyakapote,Anandabhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nikevari Bodhana,Suddhasaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Niku Tanaku,Begada,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninnada Nela,Kannada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninnanavalasina,Kalyani,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninne Bhajana,Natai,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninne Nera Namminanu,Arabhi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninne Nera Namminanura,Pantuvarali,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninnubasi,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninnuvina Namadi Endu,Navarasa Kannada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ninnuvina Sukhamugana,Todi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nipada Pankajamule,Begada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nityarupa Evari,Kapi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nivanti Daivamu,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nivanti Daivamu,Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nive Nanneda Jesite,Sowrashtra,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nivegani Nannu,Bilahari,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nivu Brovavale,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Noaremi Sri Rama,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Nrupalavala,Nadavarangini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Jaganatha,Kedara Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Rajivaksha,Arabhi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Rama Oh Rama Omkaradhama,Arabhi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Rama Rama,Naga Gandhari,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Ramaramana,Kedara,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Oh Ranga Sayi,Kambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Okamata Yokabanamu,Harikambhoji,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Okapari Judaga Rada,Kalavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Orajupu,Kannadagowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Orulanaduko,Suddhasaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Padavi Ni Sadbhaktiyu,Salaga Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Kalyana Sundara,Punnagavarali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Mam Hare,Sowrashtra,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Mam Sri Ramachandra,Kapi,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Paramatma,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Rama Duta,Vasanta Varali,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Rama Rama Yanuchu,Kharaharapriya,Thisra Laghu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Rama Ramana,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pahi Ramachandra Raghava,Yadukulakambhoji,Thisra Laghu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pakkala Nilabadi,Kharaharapriya,Triputa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Palintuvo Palimpavo,Kantamani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Palukavemi Na Daivama,Purnachandrika,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Palukavemi Patitapavana,Arabhi,Thisra Laghu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paluku Kanda Chakkeranu,Navarasakannada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paluku Kandachakkeranu,Navarasa Kannada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Para Loka Bhayamu,Mandari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paraku Nikelara Rama,Kiranavali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paraloka Sadhaname,Purvikalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paramatmudu,Vagadhiswari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Parasakti Manuparada,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paripalaya Paripalaya,Ritigowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paripurna Kama,Purvikalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paritapamu Gani,Manohari,Rupaka<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHmIbxSJhZo" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pariyachakama Mata,Vanaspati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Paruku Jesina,Jujahuli,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Patiki Harati,Surati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pattividuva Radu,Manjari,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/patti-viduvaradu-na-ceyi-patti/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Prananata Birana,Sulini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Prarabdhamittundaga,Swaravali,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Proddupoyyenu,Todi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Pula Panpu Mida,Ahiri,Thisra Laghu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raga Ratna Malika,Ritigowla,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ragasudharasa,Andolika,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/raga-sudharasa/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raghunandana Rajamohana,Suddha Desi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raghunayaka,Hamsadhwani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raghuvara Nannu,Pantuvarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raghuvira Randhira,Kharaharapriya,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rahi Kalyanarama,Kapi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raju Vedale,Desya Todi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raka Sasi Vadana,Takka,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raksha Bettare,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Bana Trana,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Daivama,Surati,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Eva Daivatam,Balahamsa,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Katha Sudha,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Kodanda Rama,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Kodanda Rama Pahi,Kharaharapriya,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Lobhamela,Darbar,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Namam Bhajare,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ni Samana,Kharaharapriya,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ni Vadu Konduvo,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ninne Namminanu,Huseni,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ninnu Vina,Sankarabharanam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ninu Namminanu,Mohanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Nipai Tanaku,Kedaram,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Nivegani,Narayani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Niyeda Prema,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Pahi Meghasyama,Kapi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Raghukula Jalanidhi,Kapi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Nivaramugama,Anandabhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Rama,Mohanam,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Rama,Sahana,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Rama Napai,Kalyani,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Rama Sita,Huseni,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Rama Ramachandra,Ghanta,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ramakrishna,Gowlipantu,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ramana,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Ramana,Vasanta Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Samayamu Brovara,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Sitarama,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Sitarama,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rama Sri Rama,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramabhakti Samrajyame,Suddha Bangala,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramabhi Rama,Dhanyasi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramabhirama,Saveri,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramabhirama Ramaniya Nama,Darbar,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramachandra Nidaya,Surati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ramanannu Brovara,Harikambhoji,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Raminchuvarevaru,Suposhini,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Ranidi Radu,Manirangu,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/06/15/ranidi-radu/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rara Mayintidaka,Asaveri,Adi<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XsfAy6WgQZw" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rara Nannelukora,Sowrashtra,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rara Raghuvira,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rara Sita,Hindola Vasantam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Rukalu Padivelu,Desya Todi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sadhinchene,Arabhi,Adi </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Saketa Niketana,Kannada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sakshi Ledanuchu,Bangala,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samaja Varagamana,Hindolam,Adi<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5DLNjjo3VY" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samayamu Delisi,Asaveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samayamu Emarake,Kalgada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sambho Mahadeva,Pantuvarali,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samiki Sari,Begada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samsarulaite,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Samukhana Nilva,Kokilavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sanatana Paramapavana,Phalamanjari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sandehamunu,Ramapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sangita Gnanamu,Dhanyasi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sangita Sastra Gnanamu,Salaga Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Santamu Leka,Sama,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Saramegani,Pantuvarali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarasa Sama Dana,Kapinarayani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarasara Samaraika,Kuntalavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarasiru Nayana,Bilahari,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarasiruhanana,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sari Vedalina,Asaveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarijesi Veduka,Tivravahini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarivarilona,Bhinna Shadja,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sariyevvare Sri Janaki,Sri Ranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarvabhauma,Ragapanjaram,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarvaloka Dayanidhe,Huseni,Thisra Laghu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sarvantaryami,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sasivadana Bhakta,Chandrajyoti,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sattaleni Dinamu,Naganandini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Siggumaali Navaledara,Kedara Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sita Kalyana Vaibhogame</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sita Manohara,Rama Manohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sita Nayaka,Ritigowla,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sitamma Mayamma, Sri Ramudu Maaku Thandri, Vasantha, Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sitapati,Khamas,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sitavara Sangita,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Siva Siva Siva Yanarada,Pantuvarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sive Pahimam Ambike,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Smarane Sukhamu,Janaranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sobhillu Saptasvara,Jaganmohini,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sogasu Juda Tarama,Kannadagowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sogasuga Mridanga,Sri Ranjani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Ganapatini,Sowrashtra,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Janakatanaye,Kalakanti,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Janaki Manohari,Isamanohari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Kanta Niyada,Bhavapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Manini Manohara,Purnashadjam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Narada Muni,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Narada Nada,Kannada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Raghuvara,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Raghuvara,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Dasa Dasoham,Dhanyasi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Jaya Rama,Varali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Jayarama,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Padama,Amritavahini,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Raghurama,Yadukulakambhoji,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Rama,Gopikavasantam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Rama,Purnachandrika,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Rama,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Ramasritulamu Gama,Saveri,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Sri Rama Jayarama,Varali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Rama Sri Rama Sri Manoharama,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Ramachandra,Saveri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Ramya Cittalankara<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/sri-ramya-cittalankara-2/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sri Tulasamma Mayinta,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sripapriya,Atana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sripare Nipada,Nagaswaravali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sudha Madhurya,Sindhuramakriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sugunamule,Chakravakam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sukhi Yevaro,Kannada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sundara Dasaratha,Kapi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sundareswaruni,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sundari Nannindarilo,Begada,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sundari Ni Divya,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Sundari Ninu Varnimpa,Arabhi,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Swararagasudha,Sankarabharanam,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Syama Sundara,Dhanyasi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Talachi Nantane,Mukhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tallidandrulu,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tanalone Dhyaninchi,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tanamidane,Bhushavali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tanavari Tanamu,Begada,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tanayuni Brova,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tappagane Vachchuna,Suddha Bangala,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tappi Bratiki,Todi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tatva Meruga,Garudadhwani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tava Dasoham,Punnagavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Telisi Ramachintanato,Purnachandrika,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Teliyaleru,Dhenuka,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/teliyaleru-rama-bhakti-margamunu/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tera Tiyaga Rada,Gowlipantu,Adi<a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlt_edXobyk" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tiruna Naloni Dugdha,Saveri,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Toli Janmamu,Bilahari,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Toli Nenu Jesina,Kokiladhwani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Toline Jesina Pujaphalamu,Suddha Bangala,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tulasi Bilwa,Kedara Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tulasi Dalamulache,Mayamalava Gowla,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Tulasi Jagat Janani,Saveri,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Undedi Ramudu Okadu,Harikambhoji,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Upacharamu Jesevaru,Bhairavi,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Upacharamulanu Chekonavayya,Bhairavi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Urake Galguna,Sahana,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Uyyala,Nilambari,Jhampa</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vachama Gocharame,Kaikavasi,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vachchunu Hari,Kalyani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vaddanundunade,Varali,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vadera Daivamu,Pantuvarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vallagadanaka,Sankarabharanam,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vandanamu Raghunandana,Sahana,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vara Narada,Vijaya Sri,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Varadaraja,Swarabhushani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Varalandukommani,Ghurjari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vararagalaya,Chenchukambhoji,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Varasikhi Vahana,Supradipa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Varijanayana,Kedara Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Venkatesa Ninu,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Verevvare,Surati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vidajaladura,Janaranjani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vidamu Seyave,Kharaharapriya,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vidhi Sakradulaku,Yamuna Kalyani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vidulaku,Mayamalava Gowla,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinanasakoni,Pratapavarali,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinarada,Devagandhari,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinatasuta,Huseni,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/vinata-suta-vahana/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinatasutavahana,Jayantasena,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinave Omanasa,Vivardhani,Rupaka</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinayakuni Valenu,Madhyamavati,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Vinayamunanu,Sowrashtra,Chapu</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Viraja Turaga,Balahamsa,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Yagnadulu,Jayamanohari,Adi<a href="http://meenakshikrishna.wordpress.com/2009/08/20/yagnadulu-sukhamanu/" target="_blank"><br />
</a></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Yemandune,Srimani,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Yochana Kamala Lochana,Darbar,Adi</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Yuktamugadu,Sri Ragam,Adi”</b></span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>List of Vinta Ragas :</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Vinta ragas (or vichitra ragas) are ragas Sri Thyagaraja has given us. There is no evidence of existence of these before Sri Thyagaraja’s times. Either he created them or he got a clue about them from <i>Svararnava</i> or raga lexicons like <i>Vyasakatakam</i> or <i>Hanumathkatakam</i>. There are about 82-83 such ragas:</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b> </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><br />
</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">ShrImaNi (EmandunE vicitramunu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">RasALi (aparAdhamula nOrva)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">ShuddhasImantini (jAnakI ramaNa)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Vardhani (manasa mana)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KalakaNThi (shrI janaka tanayE)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SindhurAmakriyA (dEvAdi dEva & sudhA mAdhUrya)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JaganmOhini (shObillu saptasvara & mAmava satatam, which is in Sanskrit)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">MalayamArutam (manasA eTulOrtunE)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">BindumAlini (entamuddO)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Bhairavam (mariyAda gAdaiyya)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SupradIpam (varashikhi vAhana)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Cittaranjani (nAda tanumanisham)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">PUrNalalitA (kalugunA pada)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KokilavarALi (samukhana nilva)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">HindOLavasantA (rAra sItA ramaNI manOhara)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">AmritavAhini (shrI rAma pAdamA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">AbhEri (nagumOmu ganalEni)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JayantashrI (marugElarA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JingaLA (anAthuDanu gAnu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Saramati (mOkSamu galadA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KalAnidhi (cinna nADE nA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KalyANavasantam (nAdalOluDai)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JayanArAyAni (manavini vinumA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">AbhOgi (manasu nilpa, nannu brOva etc)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">MargahindOLam (calamElarA sAkEtarAmA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JayantasEnA (vinatA suta vAhana)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Phalamanjari (sanAtanA parama pAvana)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">DevakriyA (nATi mATa)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JayamanOhari (yajnAdulu sukhamanu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">PUrNashaDjam (lAvaNya rAmA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">DilIpakam (rAmA nIyeDa)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">NAdatarangiNi (kripAlavAla)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">ManOhari (paritApamu gani)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">AndOlikA (rAga sudhArasa)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Manjari (paTTi viDuva)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">DEvAmrutavarshini (evarani)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SuddhabangALa (rAma bhakti sAmrAjyam)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SvarabhUshani (varadarAja ninnu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SiddhasEnA (evaraina lErA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">NaLinakAnti (manavi nAlaginca rAdaTE)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SimhavAhini (nenaruncarA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">RAgapanjaram (sArvabhauma sAkEta rAma)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">AndALi (abhimAnamu lEdEmi)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Phalaranjani (shrI narasimha)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">NArAyaNi (bhajana sEyu mArgamunu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">UmAbharaNam (nija marmamulanu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KApinArAyaNi (sarasa sAma dAna)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KuntalavarALi (centanE sadA yuncukOvayyA, shara shara samaraika)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KOkiladhwani (koniyADEDu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">CencukAmbOji (vara rAga)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">ChAyAtarangiNi (krupa jUcuTaku)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">NavarasakannaDA (paluku kaNDa, ninnu vinA nAmadi)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">PratApavarALi (vina nAshakoni)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">BahudAri (brOva bhAramA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KEsari (nannukanna talli)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">RavicandrikA (niravadhi sukhada)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SaraswatImanOhari (enta vEDukondu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">NAgasvarAvaLi (shrIpatE nIpada)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SvarAvaLi (prArabdha miTTuNDaga)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KarnATakabehAg (nEnendu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">SupOshini (ramincu vArevarurA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JUjAhULi (parAku jEsina)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Janaranjani (viDajAladurA, smaraNE sukhamu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">KOlAhalam (madilOna yOcana)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">GaruDadhwani (tatvameruga taramA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Vivardhani (vinavE O manasA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">BangALA (girirAja sutA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">GambhIravANi (sadAmadin dalatu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">ChhAyAnATa (idi samayamurA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">GAnavAridhi (daya jUcuTa)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">CandrajyOti (shashi vadana, bAgAyanayya)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">VijayashrI (vara nArada)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dundubhi (lIlagAnu jUcu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">DIpakam (kaLala nErcina)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">TIvravAhini (sarijEsi vEDuka)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">JIvantini (nI cittamu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ranjani (durmArga carAdhamulanu)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Shrutiranjani (EdAri sancarinturA)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Kaikavasi (vAcAmagOcaramE)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">HamsanAdham (baNTu rIti)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">BhUshAvaLi (tanamIda nE)<br />
</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Saraswati (anurAgamu lEni)</span></b></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Even if we have the scale of a raga, it is not easy to compose songs that will stay on for generations. Sri Thyagaraja’s greatness lies in composing songs in all these ragas and making them immortal. He gives the special <i>sancAram</i> of a raga in the opening lines of many of the songs. Names like <i>kuntalavarATi</i>, <i>pratApavarATi</i>, <i>cakravAki</i> exist in earlier works but we do not have any evidence of their being similar to the corresponding ragas we know today. His compositions in vinta ragas created a stir in his days. Many of them are popular even today.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Vinta ragas are janya ragas. There are also mElakartA rAgAs in which Thyagaraja was arguably the first to compose, to show the melodic richness and possibilities and to give the raga itself an identity. Some examples are <i>dhEnukA</i>, <i>vakuLAbharaNam</i>, <i>cakravAkam</i>, <i>sUryakAntam</i>, <i>jhankAradhvani</i>, <i>kIravANi, </i><i>kharaharapriyA, gaurimanOhari, sarasAngi, vAgadIshwari etc</i>.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Musicians of his time used to go to Thyagaraja’s place to listen to these songs. Thyagaraja’s disciples would sing these songs during practice sessions in the afternoon or in the morning <i>unchavritti</i> bhajans or the <i>ekAdashi</i> bhajans. His disciples need to be thanked for preserving these songs for posterity. They wrote the notations for the songs. Special mention must be made of Walajahpet Venkataramana Bhagavathar who used to rush home after learning a song and write it down.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sri Thyagaraja himself gives the name “<i>vinta rAgAs</i>” to these rAgAs in his songs “<i>mitri bhAgyamE</i>” in <i>kharaharapriyA </i>and “<i>muccaTa brahmAdulaku</i>” in <i>madhyamAvati</i>. He says “<i>vinta rAgamulanAlApamu sEyaga mEnu pulakarincaga</i>” and “</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>bhAgavatulu hari nAma kIrtanamu bAguga susvaramulatO vinta rAgamulanu AlApamu cEyu</i>“. He doesn’t even ask us to sing his songs in <i>vinta rAgAs</i> but to just do <i>Alapana</i> in these.”</span></div><a href="http://www.karnatik.com/c1037.shtml" target="_blank"> </a></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-13838834068706815862011-02-05T02:24:00.002+06:002011-02-05T03:26:34.737+06:00Biography of Ibn Al-Nafis<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT77s_aXZBbGjscJXKwxaJYJmzhCRs8dBC6vRi71M8hoSLj_JsOmqOewDsQKJyfRAAnEiVPUFV6Q5Mhr1s1YQJJngw8SFJxl_LIZH3A3RqTZXblZT2tlQUvLEkBGlIxkawXpRkSkk-L7ou/s1600/200px-Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjT77s_aXZBbGjscJXKwxaJYJmzhCRs8dBC6vRi71M8hoSLj_JsOmqOewDsQKJyfRAAnEiVPUFV6Q5Mhr1s1YQJJngw8SFJxl_LIZH3A3RqTZXblZT2tlQUvLEkBGlIxkawXpRkSkk-L7ou/s200/200px-Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg" width="140" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Ibn Al-Nafis (1213-1288)</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Early Life</b></span><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He was born in 1213 in Damascus, Syria. He attended the Medical College Hospital (Bimaristan al-Noori) in Damascus. Besides medicine, Ibn al-Nafis was also learned in many other subjects, including Arabic literature, Fiqh (jurisprudence), Kalam (theology) and early Islamic philosophy. He became an expert on the Shafi`i school of jurisprudence and an expert physician.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1236, Ibn al-Nafis moved to Cairo, Egypt. He worked at the Al-Nassri Hospital, and subsequently at the Al-Mansouri Hospital, where he became the "Chief of Physicians". In 1242, by which time he was about 29 years old, he published his most famous work, the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's<i> Canon</i>, which contained many new anatomical discoveries, most importantly the pulmonary and coronary circulations. Soon afterwards, he begun work on The Comprehensive Book on Medicine, for which he had already published 43 volumes by 641 AH (1243-1244 CE), by which time he was about 31 years old. Over the next several decades, he would write down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died. Nevertheless, even in its incomplete state, The Comprehensive Book on Medicine was the largest encyclopedia up until that time, and still remains one of the largest medical encyclopedias to date.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis grew up in a time of political turmoil in Syria and Egypt, during the Crusades and Mongol invasions. After the sack of Baghdad in 1258, Syria was soon temporarily occupied by the Mongol Empire in 1259, who were then subsequently repelled by the Egyptian SultanBaibars at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. Like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, Ibn al-Nafis believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. Between 1260-1277, he became the personal physician of Sultan Baibars.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis died on 17 December 1288 CE (11 Dhu al-Qi'dah 687 AH), and posthumously donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Religious background</span></span></h3><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and a scholar of the Shafi`i school of FiqhSharia (Islamic law). He wrote a number of works on philosophy, and was particularly interested in reconciling reason with revelation and blurring the line between the two. Unlike some of his contemporaries and predecessors, he made no distinction between philosophy and theology. Ibn al-Nafis adhered to the teachings of the Qur'an and accepted the authority of the hadiths, but required each hadith to be rationally</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (Islamic jurisprudence) and acceptable.</span></span><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis, who grew up in a time of political turmoil during the Crusades and Mongol invasions, commented on these conflicts and, like other traditionalist Muslims in his time, believed that these invasions may have been a divine punishment from God against Muslims deviating from the Sunnah. As a result, the falsafa, some of whom held ideas incompatible with the Sunnah, became targets of criticism from a number of traditionalist Muslims. On the other hand, Ibn al-Nafis, who was a traditionalist himself, made an attempt at reconciling reason with revelation in some of his works to show that there is harmony between religion and philosophy. Being a traditionalist, Ibn al-Nafis also disliked the misuse of wine as self-medication, while citing both medical and religious reasons against it, arguing that "I will not meet God, the Most High, with any wine in me." His image as a God-fearing and Sunnah-abiding religious scholar, an intelligent rational philosopher, and an accomplished medical physician, had a positive impression on both traditionalists and rationalists alike. The fact that Ibn al-Nafis' student was Abu Hayyan Al Gharnati, a famous Imam and Hafiz at the time, also appealed to traditionalists such as al-Dhahabi.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Latin translations</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Sharh al-Adwiya al-Murakkaba (Commentary on Compound Drugs) was a commentary on the last part of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine concerning pharmacopoeia, which was written by Ibn al-Nafis sometime before he wrote his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon in 1242. The Commentary on compound drugs, however, did contain criticisms of Galen's doctrines on the heart and the blood vessels and dealt with the circulatory system to some extent. This work was later translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago of Belluno (d. 1520), who had lived in Syria for about 30 years before returning to Italy with a collection of medical Arabic books. A printed version of his translation was available in Venice from 1547.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis' work on the pulse, where he criticized the Avicennian and Galenic theories and corrected them, was also translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago sometime before 1522 in printed in Venice in 1547.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">It is known that Ibn al-Nafis' <i>Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i>, which first described the pulmonary and coronary circulations, was also available in Venice as an Arabic manuscript,and it is believed that it may have also been translated into Latin by Andrea Alpago. Along with Latin translations of his <i>Commentary on compound drugs</i> Servetus was himself a Michael Servetus (d. 1553), Realdo Colombo (d. 1559) and William Harveynontrinitarian who is said to have been interested in Islam and familiar with the Qur'an. </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">and his work on the pulse, it may have had an influence on the descriptions of pulmonary circulation given by </span> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(1578-1657).</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Edward D. Coppola wrote:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"A possible way by which Ibn an-Nafis' theory of the pulmonary circulation could have reached the West [...] Andrea Alpago knew of Ibn an-Nafis, had read his exposition on the Vth canon of Avicenna, his exposition on the book of Samarcandi and was familiar with certain of Ibn an-Nafis' ideas concerning the cardio-vascular system. [...] It is possible that somewhere among the unpublished manuscripts of Andrea Alpago is to be found a rendering of Ibn an-Nafis' description of the lesser circulation. Certainly such manuscripts are extant. [...] It is possible that these and other manuscripts left by Andreas Alpago may yet come to light, and that among them we eventually may find a description of the pulmonary circulation by Ibn an-Nafis."</b></span></div></blockquote><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Joseph Schacht wrote:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"A possible influence of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on the three sixteenth century authors in the light of what we now know of Andrea Alpago, cannot be ruled out any longer. [...] Servetus shows a specific knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis on whom he is dependent more than his two contemporaries; he made additions of his own, partly anatomical, partly theoretical, which recur, elaborated and partly modified, in Colombo. [...] Colombo probably had direct knowledge of the theory of Ibn al-Nafis."</b></span></div></blockquote><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Legacy </span></b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">During and after his lifetime, Ibn al-Nafis' 80-volume medical encyclopedia, <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i>, had eventually replaced <i>The Canon of Medicine</i> of Avicenna (Ibn Sina) as a medical authority in the medieval Islamic world. Muslim biographers, historians and reviewers from the 13th century onwards considered Ibn al-Nafis the greatest physician in history, with some referring to him as "the second Ibn Sina" and others considering him even greater than all his predecessors. Al-Dhahabi (d. 1348) and al-Isnawī (d. 1370) considered him "unsurpassed in medicine during his lifetime and unparalleled in his preparation of medicinal treatments and medical inferences", while the biographers Tāj al-Dīn al-Subkī (d. 1370) and Ibn Qadi Shuhba wrote:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"As for medicine, there has never been anyone on this earth like [Ibn al-Nafīs]. Some say that after Ibn Sīnā there has never been one like [Ibn al-Nafīs], while some say that he was better than Ibn Sīnā in practical treatment."</span></b></div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">A number of later Arabic commentaries on <i>The Canon of Medicine</i>, including ones by Sadid al-Din Muhammad ibn Mas'ud al-Kazaruni in 1344 and Ali ibn Abdallah Zayn al-Arab al-Misri in 1350, understood and repeated Ibn al-Nafis' descriptions of the pulmonary circulation, suggesting that knowledge of his discovery was fairly widespread among Muslim physicians in the Islamic world.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Shortly after his <i>Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i> was re-discovered in modern times, George Sarton, the "father of the history of science", wrote the following on the significance of Ibn al-Nafis' discovery of pulmonary circulation to the history of medicine:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"If the authenticity of Ibn al-Nafis' theory is confirmed his importance will increase enormously for he must be considered one of the main forerunners of William Harvey and the greatest physiologist of the Middle Ages."</b></span></div></blockquote><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-edit.g?blogID=7277245263596266670&postID=1383883406870681586" id="Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna.27s_Canon" name="Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna.27s_Canon"></a><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</span></span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1924, an Egyptian physician, Dr. Muhyo Al-Deen Altawi, discovered a manuscript from 1242, titled Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun<i> Ibn Sina</i> (Commentary on Anatomy<i> in </i>Avicenna's<i> Canon</i>), in the Prussian State Library in Berlin while studying the history of Arab Medicine at the medical faculty of Albert Ludwig's University in Germany. This script is considered one of the best scientific books in which Ibn al-Nafis covers in detail the topics of anatomy, pathology and physiology. In this work, his experimental approach to physiology is evident as he writes:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"...In determining the use of each organ we shall rely necessarily on verified examinations and straightforward research, disregarding whether our opinions will agree or disagree with those of our predecessors."</span></b></div></blockquote><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline">Circulatory system</span></b></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline"> </span></b></span></h3><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">Based on his anatomical knowledge, Ibn al-Nafis stated that:</span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit..."</b></span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Elsewhere in his book, he said: ...</span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"The heart has only two ventricles ...and between these two there is absolutely no opening. Also dissection gives this lie to what they said, as the septum between these two cavities is much thicker than elsewhere. The benefit of this blood (that is in the right cavity) is to go up to the lungs, mix with what is in the lungs of air, then pass through the arteria venosa to the left cavity of the two cavities of the heart..."</span></b></blockquote><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">In describing the anatomy of the lungs, Ibn al-Nafis stated:</span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"The lungs are composed of parts, one of which is the bronchi; the second, the branches of the arteria venosa; and the third, the branches of the vena arteriosa, all of them connected by loose porous flesh."</span></b></blockquote><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">He then added:</span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"... the need of the lungs for the vena arteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lungs may mix with what there is of air therein and combine with it, the resultant composite becoming fit to be spirit, when this mixing takes place in the left cavity of the heart. The mixture is carried to the left cavity by the arteria venosa."</span></b></blockquote><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline">Coronary circulation</span></b></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline"> </span></b></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis' next most important discovery is coronary circulation, the second phase of the circulatory system. He was the first to realize that the nutrition of the heart is extracted from the small blood vessels passing through its wall. He wrote:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"Again his [Avicenna's] statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart..."</b></span></div></blockquote><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Capillary circulation</span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Ibn al-Nafis discovered a precursor to the "capillary circulation in his assertion that the pulmonary vein receives what comes out of the pulmonary artery, this being the reason for the existence of perceptible passages between the two." Capillary circulation was not known in Europe for several centuries until Marcello Malpighi in 1661<span style="font-size: small;">.</span></span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Pulsation</span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis rejected the incorrect Galenic theory on the pulse and instead proposed his own accurate theory of pulsation. Galen believed that "every part of an artery pulsates simultaneously" and that the motion of the pulse was due to natural motions (the arteries expanding and contracting naturally) as opposed to foced motions (the heart causing the arteries to either expand or contract). Ibn al-Nafis rejected this view after discovering that pulsation is a result of both natural and forced motions, and that the "forced motion must be the contraction of the arteries caused by the expansion of the heart, and the natural motion must be the expansion of the arteries." He notes that the "arteries and the heart do not expand and contract at the same time, but rather the one contracts while the other expands" and vice versa. He also recognized that the purpose of the pulse is to help disperse the blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Ibn al-Nafis briefly summarizes his new theory of pulsation:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"The primary purpose of the expansion and contraction of the heart is to absorb the cool air and expel the wastes of the spirit and the warm air; however, the ventricle of the heart is wide. Moreover, when it expands it is not possible for it to absorb air until it is full, for that would then ruin the temperament of the spirit, its substance and texture, as well as the temperament of the heart. Thus, the heart is necessarily forced to complete its fill by absorbing the spirit."</span></b></div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He writes several advantages to this theory, such as the following:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"To benefit the spirit by moving towards the heart sometimes, and at other times towards the arteries, and maintain its subtlety and substance, and not get [adversely] affected by ... a lengthy rest in the arteries."</b></span></div></blockquote><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"The heart must be extremely hot in order to generate properly the spirit from the blood and the cool air, and the arteries must be cold in nature ... Thus, if the spirit were to reside always in the heart, it would burn out because of the excessive heat, and if it were to reside always in the arteries, it would become cold and thick."</span></b></div></blockquote><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Other anatomical and physiological discoveries</span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">While the most important discoveries in the </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina</i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> (</span><i style="font-weight: normal;">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i><span style="font-weight: normal;">) were the pulmonary and coronary circulations, this work also contains many other discoveries and discredits many erroneous theories advocated in </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">The Canon of Medicine</i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> by Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Galen. Besides the examples given in this article, the </span><i style="font-weight: normal;">Commentary on Anatomy in </i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Avicenna's Canon</span> c<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal;">ontains numerous other discoveries, criticisms and corrections on the anatomy and physiology of almost every part of the human body, including the bones, muscles, intestines</span>, <span style="font-weight: normal;">sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, etc.</span></span></h3><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Brain</span></span></h4><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis quotes another error made by Galen, who believed that "blood reaches the brainforebrain through the duramater which divides the vault longitudinally into two equal halves at the sagittal suture." Ibn al-Nafis criticized this theory and corrected it as follows:</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"> itself at the section called </span><br />
<blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> <b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;">"The blood permeates first to the back ventricle (hindbrain) then to the other two ventricles. Dissection confirms this and disproves what they say. </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;">The permeation of arteries into the cranium is well known not to be from the front ventricle."</span></b> <br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Canals" name="Canals"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Canals</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another example concerns an incorrect theory on the anatomy of the bilious canals that was supported by Galen and Avicenna, and later repeated by Leonardo da Vinci and even Vesalius during the early modern period. Ibn al-Nafis was the only physician in pre-modern times to prove this theory wrong:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"He [Galen] claims that another canal goes from the gall bladder to the intestinal cavaties. This is completely wrong. We have seen the gall bladder several times and failed to see anything going from it either to the stomach or to the intestines."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Heart" name="Heart"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Heart</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another correction he made concerned the incorrect Galenic and Avicennian theories of bones being present beneath the human heart. Ibn al-Nafis proved them both wrong through his own observations and wrote the following criticism on their theories:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"This is not true. There are absolutely no bones beneath the heart as it is positioned right in the middle of the chest cavity where there are no bones at all. Bones are only found at the chest periphery not where the heart is positioned."</b></span><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Muscles" name="Muscles"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Muscles</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis made the following correction concerning human muscles, where he also briefly refers to his then forthcoming encyclopedia <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i>:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"The most important muscles of a human body total 529, details of which you will read in a book we are writing on medicine with full investigations into their shapes, functions, tendons, and origins. The forthcoming book will also contain details about proper anatomy since what is said about it here, is short and brief."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Nerves" name="Nerves"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Nerves</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis corrects another theory on the nerves stated by Avicenna, who believed that the glossopharyngeal nerve, vagus nerve and accessory nerve arise from the nerve ganglion and that they are attached to the sigmoid and facial nerves through membranous fascia so that these five nerves look like one nerve emerging as three branches from the back foramen lacerum. While examining this theory, Ibn al-Nafis performed the earliest known dissection on the human brain, after he wrote the following criticism on this theory:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"About what he [Ibn Sina] said concerning the sixth nerve being attached to the fifth through membranous facia, I have not so far found a good reason for that attachment, and I have not even verified it. This sixth pair [a confluence of the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves] both arises and emerges from behind the fifth, so there is no way it could be attached to it."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Another example was Galen's incorrect theory on the optic nerve, in which he stated that the optic nerve "which comes from the right side of the brain goes to the right eye, and the nerve which comes from the left side goes to the left eye." Ibn al-Nafis also proved this theory wrong and stated:</div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"In fact it is not like that, [but] each nerve goes to the opposite side."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Other_theories" name="Other_theories"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Other Theories</span></span></h3><a href="" id="Embryology_and_Generation" name="Embryology_and_Generation"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Embryology and Generation</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis criticized previous Aristotelian, Galenic and Avicennian explanations of embryology and proceeds to develop his own theories on embryology and generation. He believed that when a male and female semen mix, and when they create a mixed matter that has an appropriate temperament to receive an animal or human soul, God issues a soul to this matter, which then develops into an embryo that grows and generates organs. He further writes:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Galen believes that each of the two semen has in it the active faculty to fashion and the passive faculty to be fashioned, however the active faculty is stronger in the male semen while the passive in the female semen. The investigators amongst the <i>falasifa</i> believe that the male semen only has the active faculty, while the female only has the passive faculty. ... As for our opinion on this, and God knows best, neither of the two semen has in it an active faculty to fashion."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He then shows that once the male semen and female semen are brought together in the womb, the female semen quenches the hot fire of the male semen through its own cool and wet nature. Once the two semen are mixed, he says:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"They modify one another’s temperament and [the mixture] obtains a temperament that is prepared for the emanation of the soul from their Supreme Creator."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Philosophy_and_Psychology" name="Philosophy_and_Psychology"></a><br />
<h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Philosophy and Psychology</span></span></h4><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The commentary also dealt with the early Islamic philosophy and Muslim psychology related to Islamic medicine. Ibn al-Nafis developed his own theories on hylomorphic psychology and philosophy, mostly on a theological basis.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In particular, he made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and he developed his own theory on the soul. He also crtiticized the ideas of Avicenna and Aristotle on the soul originating from the heart. Ibn al-Nafis rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs." He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘I’."</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He also identified the "psychic faculties" with cognition, sensation, imagination, and animal locomotion, and disproved Aristotle's notion that these come from the heart rather than the brain. After Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the brain and nerves are cooler than the heart and arteries, he argued that the psychic faculties come from the brain on this basis. He further wrote that it is the brain which controls sensation, movement and cognition.</span></div><a href="" id="The_Comprehensive_Book_on_Medicine" name="The_Comprehensive_Book_on_Medicine"></a><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline">The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</span></b></span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The most voluminous of his books is <i>Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb</i> (<i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i>), a medical encyclopedia which Ibn al-Nafis begun immediately after he completed his <i>Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i> in 1242. He had already published 43 volumes by 641 AH (1243-1244 CE). Over the next several decades, he would wrote down notes for 300 volumes, though he was only able to publish 80 volumes before he died in 1288. Even in its incomplete state, however, <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i> is one of the largest known medical encyclopedias in history, and was much larger than the more famous <i>The Canon of Medicine</i> by Avicenna. However, only several volumes of <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i> have survived.</span></div><a href="" id="Surgery" name="Surgery"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Surgery</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">To date, three surviving manuscripts comprising volumes 33, 42 and 43 of <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i> have been found in Damascus and at the Lane Medical Library of Stanford University. One of the three surviving manuscripts (MS Z 276) of <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i> is dedicated to surgery, and is divided into three <i>talim</i>. The first <i>talim</i> is twenty chapters in length and deals with the "general and absolute principles of surgery", the second <i>talim</i> deals with surgical instruments, and the third examines every type of surgical operation known to him. Only the first five chapters of the first <i>talim</i> has been translated into English and their contents are listed as follows:</span></div><ol style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"On the role of the physician during the time of presentation, the time of operative </b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"On the different stages of surgical operations, and the role of the patient in each stage"</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>treatment, and the time of preservation"</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"On a detailed discussion of the role of the physician during the time of presentation"</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"On relating the things to which the physician should pay attention during the time of operative treatment"</b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"On the patient's posture during surgical treatment"</b></span></li>
</ol><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis states that in order for a surgical operation to be successful, full attention needs to be given to three stages of the operation. The first stage is the pre-operation period which he calls the "time of presentation" when the surgeon carries out a diagnosis on the affected area of the patient's body. The second stage is the acutal operation which he calls the "time of operative treatment" when the surgeon repairs the affected organs of the patient. The third stage is the post-operation period which he calls the "time of preservation" when the patient needs to take care of himself and be taken care of by nurses and doctors until he recovers "by the will of God". For each stage, he gives detailed descriptions on the roles of the surgeon, patient and nurse, and the manipulation and maintenance of the surgical instruments being used. <i>The Comprehensive Book on Medicine</i> was also the earliest book dealing with the decubitus of a patient.</span></div><a href="" id="Urology" name="Urology"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Urology</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Sections of the book also dealt with urology, including the issues of sexual dysfunction and erectile dysfunction. Ibn al-Nafis was one of the first to prescribe clinically tested drugs as medication for the treatment of these problems. His treatments were mainly oral drugs, though a few patients were also treated through topical or transurethral means.</span></div><a href="" id="Theologus_Autodidactus" name="Theologus_Autodidactus"></a><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Theologus Autodidactus</span></span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Al-Risalah al-Kamiliyyah fil Siera al-Nabawiyyah</i> (<i>The Treatise of Kamil on the Prophet's Biography</i>), also known as <i>Risālat Fād il ibn Nātiq</i> (<i>The Book of Fādil ibn Nātiq</i>), was the first theological novel, written by Ibn al-Nafis and later translated in the West as <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>. This work is one of the first Arabic novels, the first science fiction novel, and the earliest example of a desert island story and coming of age story. This novel was written sometime between 1268 and 1277 CE.</span></div><a href="" id="Plot" name="Plot"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Plot</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The plot of this novel was the earliest example of a desert island story, a coming of age story, and a science fiction story. The protagonist of the story is Kamil, an autodidactic adolescent feral child who is spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a deserted island. He eventually comes in contact with the outside world after the arrival of castaways who get shipwrecked and stranded on the island, and later take him back to the civilized world with them. The plot gradually develops into a coming-of-age story and then becomes the earliest example of a science fiction novel when it eventually reaches its climax with a catastrophic doomsday apocalypse.</span></div><a href="" id="Themes" name="Themes"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Themes</span></span></h3><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">knowledge of</span> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ibn al-Nafis uses the plot to express many of his own religious, philosophical and scientific themes on a wide variety of subjects, including biology, cosmology, empiricism, epistemology, experimentation, futurology, geology, Islamic eschatology, natural philosophy, the philosophy of history and sociology, the philosophy of religion, physiology, psychology, and teleology. Ibn al-Nafis was thus an early pioneer of the philosophical novel. Through the story of Kamil, Ibn al-Nafis attempted to establish that the human mind is capable of deducing the natural, philosophical and religious truths of the universe through reasoning and logical thinking. The "truths" presented in the story include the necessity of God's existence, the life and teachings of the prophets of Islam, and an analysis of the past, present, and future, including the origins of the Homo Sapien species and a general prediction of the future on the basis of historicism and historical determinism. The final two chapters of the story resemble a science fiction plot, where the end of the world, doomsday, resurrection and afterlife are predicted and scientifically explained using his own empiricalbiology, astronomy, cosmology and geology. One of the main purposes behind </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Theologus Autodidactus</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> was to explain Islamic religious teachings in terms of science</span> and philosophy through the use of a fictional narrative, hence this was an attempt at reconciling reason with revelation and blurring the line between the two.</span><br />
<br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis described the book as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. The novel also includes references to his new physiology and his theories of pulmonary circulation and pulsation, which he uses to justify bodily resurrection. Some have thus argued that it was his attempts at attempting to prove bodily resurrection that led him to his discovery of the pulmonary circulation. Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to Avicenna's metaphysical claim that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The plot of <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> was intended to be a response to Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), who wrote the first fictional Arabic novel <i>Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</i> (<i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>) which was itself a response to al-Ghazali's <i>The Incoherence of the Philosophers</i>. Ibn al-Nafis thus wrote the narrative of <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> as a rebuttal of Abubacer's arguments in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>. Both of these narratives had protagonists (Hayy in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i> and Kamil in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>) who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy lives alone with animals on a desert island for the rest of the story in <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>, developing into a coming-of-age plot and eventually becoming the first example of a science fiction novel. The purpose behind this changing story structure in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> was to refute Abubacer's argument that autodidacticism can lead to the same religious truths as revelation, whereas Ibn al-Nafis believed that religious truths can only be attained through revelation, which is represented through Kamil's interactions with other humans.</span></div><a href="" id="Biomedical_portions" name="Biomedical_portions"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Biomedical portions</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> also contains some passages that are of significance to medicine, particularly physiology and biology, such as the following statement:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"Both the body and its parts are in a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment, so they are inevitably undergoing permanent change."</b></span><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">This is seen as the first example of the concept of metabolism, which is comprised of catabolism, where living matter is broken down into simple substances, and anabolism, where food builds up into living matter.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> also criticizes the idea of wine being used as self-medication, an idea believed by ancient Greek physicians as well as some unorthodox Muslim physicians in his time, despite the Islamic prohibition of alcohol. The novel further argues that the consumption of alcohol, along with the prevalence of homosexuality among a small minority of Muslims at the time, were the cause of the Mongol invasions into Islamic lands as a divine punishment.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The novel also contains a reference to the pulmonary circulation which Ibn al-Nafis had previously described in his <i>Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i>, which is briefly described by the character Kamil when he observes the heart:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"[Its] right ventricle is filled with blood and its left ventricle is filled with spirit."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another passage has a reference to Ibn al-Nafis' theory of pulsation:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Its left ventricle is filled with spirit, and this ventricle contracts, thereby sending this spirit in the arteries to the organs. Then it expands, and this spirit returns to it."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis makes use of his new systems of anatomy, physiology and psychology which he had developed in his previous works in order to defend his views on bodily resurrection in <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i>. This may have been one of the reasons that initially motivated his discovery of the pulmonary circulation.</span></div><a href="" id="A_Short_Account_of_the_Methodology_of_Hadith" name="A_Short_Account_of_the_Methodology_of_Hadith"></a><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith</span></span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote <i>Al-Mukhtasar fi Ilm Usoulil Hadith</i> (<i>A Short Account of the Methodology of Hadith</i>), a treatise on the science of hadith. The work is notable for its use of ijtihad (reason) in the evaluation of a hadith (narration or report) and its isnad (chain of transmission), unlike other contemporary hadith scholars, notably Ibn al-Salāh, who relied on traditional methods of classifying a hadith and its isnad. Ibn al-Nafis, on the other hand, sought to demonstrate the use of rationality and logic to classify the hadiths and to find whether there are any contradictions within them. Later traditionalists, however, disagreed with the use of reason in the science of hadith, including the hadith scholar al-Dhahabi and the polymath Ibn Khaldun, who argued that "there is no place for the intellect in them, save that the intellect may be used in connection with them to relate problems of detail with basic principles."</span></div><a href="" id="Classification" name="Classification"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">While traditional hadith scholars identified hadiths into three categories; sahih (sound), hasan (fair) and da'if (weak); Ibn al-Nafis instead classified them into four logical categories: decidedly true (<i>maclūm al-sidq</i>), probably true (<i>yuz annu bihi'l-sidq</i>), probably false (<i>yuz annu bihi'l-kadhb</i>) and decidedly false (<i>maclūm al-kadhb</i>). He used reason and logic to judge the veracity or falsity of a report:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"As for the report whose truthfulness is certain but not on account of the veracity of the reporter, [it is of the following types]: it may be congruous to a report known to be true. For example, if one reports something that is in agreement witha report of God, or the Prophet, or is something that [all] Muslims agree upon... Likewise, what is reported may be known to be true on account of its agreement with fact. The knowledge of that may be self-evident, for example if it is said that two is half of four, or that the whole is greater than the parts. Or it may not be self-evident, for example when one says that since we have a creator, the world must be created. As for the report that is known to be false, it may be due to knowing the truth about another report that contradicts it, either by being its opposite or by being incompatible with it. For example, if one reported something that contradicted the saying of God, or his Prophet or the saying of the consensus of Muslims. It may also be false if it is known to contradict facts. Knowledge of that kind could be theoretical speculation such as the reports that the innovators disseminate in texts on anthropomorphism... or it could be self-evidently false, for example if one were to say, ‘The part is greater than the whole!‘"</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">According to traditional hadith scholars of his time, all sahih hadiths, especially those reported in the canonical Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim hadith collections, should instantly be classified as definitely true on the basis of a reliable isnad (chain of transmission). Ibn al-Nafis disagreed and instead classified most of those same sahih hadiths as "probably true" instead of "decidedly true", as he denied the absolute and unconditional validity of the sahih hadiths that was becoming the norm during his time. He argues thad, while a report emanating from Muhammad is always "decidedly true", most hadiths do not reach them directly from Muhamamd and so they can only be classified as "probably true" or "probably false" based on their isnad. He states that the only hadiths that are "decidedly true" are the multiply transmitted mutawatir (consecutive) hadiths. Since most sahih hadiths do not meet the criteria of mutawatir, he rejects the absolute soundness of the Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim collections, placing a strong emphasis on mutawatir hadiths:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"As for the reports that are at our disposal now, most of what we adhere to are only highly probable [ghālib al-zann] and not indubitable knowledge [al-cilm al-muh aqqaq], contrary to [the majority of] people who say: “Everything that Muslim and Bukhārī agree upon is decidedly certain because the scholars agree on the soundness of these two books.” But the truth is that that is not the case! For the agreement is only over the permissible actions that are found in these two [texts], but that does not preclude what is in these two from being suspect in its soundness."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">This was a view that was held by a majority of ulema (legal scholars) in his time, but this view was not shared by traditional hadith scholars in his time who did not differentiate between hadiths that were "sahih" and "mutawatir". Ibn al-Nafis further classified the da'if (weak) hadiths as "probably false", and the only hadiths he classified as "decidedly false" were the ones where there was a known liar among the chain of transmission, the ones contradicting a "definitely true" hadith, and the ones dealing with anthropomorphism:</span></div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"As for lies in the meaning of a hadīth, that is as if one said: “The messenger of God said such-and-such,” when the messenger of God actually said, “I do not say that.” Likewise, when something transmitted on the authority of the messenger of God seems absurd rationally [<i>caqlan</i>] or through law [<i>sharcan</i>], then it is permissible to interpret it and reduce it to a likely meaning."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">With his emphasis on reason throughout the text, he wished to highlight the importance of <i>ilm al-dirāya</i> (content analysis) which was practiced by the early hadith scholars but was absent from the hadith scholarship of his time who put far more emphasis on isnad instead. He disagreed with their definition of a sahih hadith as a hadith from the canonical sahih collections, but instead he defined a sahih hadith as a "decidedly true" hadith that is "free from being challenged on account of its transmitters [<i>rijālihi</i>], its content [<i>matnihi</i>] and its meaning [<i>macnāhi</i>], while having a continuous chain of transmitters" and without any anthropomorphic content.</span></div><a href="" id="Other_works" name="Other_works"></a><br />
<h2 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Other Works</span></span></h2><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">So far, the titles of at least 37 of his works are known, which add up to at least more than a hundred volumes in total, though only a fraction of his works have survived (or yet to be discovered) and even fewer have been printed (or translated).</span></div><a href="" id="A_Summary_of_Medicine" name="A_Summary_of_Medicine"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"><i>A Summary of Medicine</i></span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis' <i>Al-Mujaz fi al-Tibb</i> (<i>A Summary of Medicine</i>) was a 500-page book on medicine. Parts of the book dealt with otolaryngology, and one chapter in particular first described the ear infections otitis media and otitis externa. He described the latter as an "outer ear canal infection" where the "ear was painful and tender, slightly swollen and producing a smelly coloured discharge" and with a "degree of hearing impairment." It was here that he introduced the concept of dividing a condition into an early acute stage and a later chronic stage, which remains similar to modern classifications of ear diseases. In some of the preparations and remedies he described for their treatment, he introduced the use of vinegar, which is still used for ear infections in modern times.</span></div><a href="" id="The_Choice_of_Foodstuffs" name="The_Choice_of_Foodstuffs"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">The Choice of Foodstuffs</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another famous book, embodying a number of original contributions, was on the effects of diet on health, entitled <i>Kitab al-Mukhtar fi al-Aghdhiya</i> (<i>The Choice of Foodstuffs</i>). His approach to health placed a greater emphasis on diet, nutrition, and controlling the food consumed by a patient, rather than the prescriptions of drugs.</span></div><a href="" id="The_Polished_Book_on_Experimental_Ophthalmology" name="The_Polished_Book_on_Experimental_Ophthalmology"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote a large textbook on ophthalmology called <i>The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology</i> in which he made a number of original contributions to the field. The book is divided into two sections: "On the Theory of Ophthalmology" and "Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs".</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis discovered that the muscle behind the eyeball does not support the ophthalmic nerve, that they do not get in contact with it, and that the optic nerves transect but do not get in touch with each other. He also discovered many new treatments for glaucoma and the weakness of vision in one eye when the other eye is affected by disease.</span></div><a href="" id="Medical_commentaries" name="Medical_commentaries"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Medical commentaries</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The most famous known work of Ibn al-Nafis is his 20-volume commentary on Avicenna's <i>The Canon of Medicine</i>, in which Ibn al-Nafis "elucidated the scientific problems, pointed out the logical conclusions, and explained the medical difficulties" in the text according to the biographers Umarī and al-Safadī. The most famous part of his commentary is the <i>Sharh Tashrih al-Qanun Ibn Sina</i> (<i>Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</i>), in which Ibn al-Nafis made his discovery of pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation. The other four surviving volumes of the commentary are called <i>A Commentary on Generalities, A Commentary on Materia Medica and Compund Drugs, A Commentary on Head-to-Toe Diseases</i>, and <i>A Commentary on Diseases Which Are Not Specific to Certain Organs</i>. In the first of these volumes, <i>A Commentary on Generalities</i>, he repeats his account of the pulmonary circulation.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He also wrote the <i>Kitab al-Mujiz</i> or <i>Mujiz al-Qanun</i> (<i>Epitome of the Kitab al-Qanun</i>), another work based on the <i>Canon</i>, but rather than a commentary, this was an edited version of the original <i>Canon</i> for medical students. The sections on anatomy and physiology, however, were removed from the text due to the inaccuracy of those segments, and he also did not include his own commentaries in this work, hence it has no mention of his descriptions on the pulmonary or coronary circulations. This work was popular in the Islamic world and was translated into several other languages, including Turkish and Hebrew, and several commentaries were written on his edited version of the <i>Canon</i>.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He also wrote a number of commentaries on the topic of medicine. His commentaries include one on Hippocrates' book, and several volumes on Ibn Sina's <i>Qanun Fil Tibb</i> (<i>The Canon of Medicine</i>). Additionally, he wrote a commentary on Hunayn ibn Ishaq's book. In his commentaries on Avicenna and his commentary on Hippocrates, entitled <i>Sharh Fusul Buqrat</i><i>Commentary on Hippocrates' Aphorisms</i>), he wrote an introductory note on them, making obvious his rebellious nature against established authorities as he states that he has decided to:</span> </div><blockquote class="templatequote" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"throw light on and stand by true opinions, and forsake those which are false and erase their traces..."</span></b><br />
</div></blockquote><a href="" id="Other_medical_writings" name="Other_medical_writings"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Other medical writings</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His other medical works include the <i>Risalat al-A'ada'a</i> (<i>An Essay on Organs</i>) and <i>Al-Shamel fi al-Tibb</i> (<i>Reference Book for Physicians</i>).</span></div><a href="" id="Environmental_science" name="Environmental_science"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Environmental science</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote a treatise on environmental science, which covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities.</span></div><a href="" id="Fiqh_jurisprudence_and_Sharia_law" name="Fiqh_jurisprudence_and_Sharia_law"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Fiqh jurisprudence and Sharia law</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote several books dealing with Fiqh jurisprudence and Sharia law, including the <i>Theologus Autodidactus</i> and a commentary on Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi's <i>Al-Tanbeeh</i><i>Exhortation</i>).</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One of his most famous books on law is <i>Mujaz al-Qanun</i> (<i>The Summary of Law</i>). He also wrote a number of other commentaries on the topic of law.</span></div><a href="" id="Linguistics" name="Linguistics"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Linguistics</span></span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on Arabic linguistics. One was his original work, <i>Tareeq al-Fasaha</i><i>Road to Eloquence</i>), while the other was a commentary on the linguist Said bin al-Hassan al-Rab'i al-Baghdadi's <i>Al-Fusous</i> (<i>The Segments</i>)</span> </div><a href="" id="Logic" name="Logic"></a><br />
<h3> <span class="mw-headline">Logic</span></h3><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn al-Nafis wrote two books on logic in Islamic philosophy. One of these works deals with Avicennian logic as a commentary of Avicenna's Al-Isharat (The Signs) and Al-Hidayah (The Guidance). His other work on logic, <i>Al-Wurayqat</i> (<i>The Little Papers</i>), deals with Aristotelian logic as a commentary on Aristotle's Organon and Rhetoric.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His Theologus Autodidactus and A Short Account of the Methodology<i> </i>of<i> </i>Hadith also deal with the use of logic in Islamic theology.</span></div><a href="" id="Philosophy" name="Philosophy"></a><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline">Philosophy</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In early Islamic philosophy, Ibn al-Nafis wrote commentaries on Avicennian philosophy, specifically Avicenna's <i>Hidaya f'il-Hikma</i> and the Kitab al-Isharat wa al-Tanbihat (<i>Book of Directives and Remarks</i>) in The Book of Healing, though neither of these commentaries have survived.</span></h3><h3 style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"> </span></span></h3><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h4><h4 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><span class="mw-headline"> </span></b></span></h4><br />
<h3 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="mw-headline"> </span></span></h3></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-82910836005744381592011-02-05T01:25:00.000+06:002011-02-05T01:25:21.774+06:00Biography of Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYlNO5xH8z3NqDBXeuq2eBpilsiJGMY-DB4DtesXUuwQnDZoa_Gl-eR6UsPlYTeawpd4oOIb6Hvl5N3JWL8nSGprGQI1F39yh2mG0uGue3sdlW6En0ykYr1jpxFU2yO0JsgmfNKhk21EYM/s1600/hahnem29.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYlNO5xH8z3NqDBXeuq2eBpilsiJGMY-DB4DtesXUuwQnDZoa_Gl-eR6UsPlYTeawpd4oOIb6Hvl5N3JWL8nSGprGQI1F39yh2mG0uGue3sdlW6En0ykYr1jpxFU2yO0JsgmfNKhk21EYM/s200/hahnem29.jpg" width="138" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Christian Friedrich Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Samuel Hahnemann is the founder of homoeopathy. This outstanding scholar was born in Meissen, Saxony (now part of Germany), on 10th April 1755, into an impoverished middle-class family during Frederick the Great's Seven Years War. He was taught to read and write by both parents and credits his father with instilling "good and worthy" ideas into his mind. He was taught early by his father never to learn passively but to question everything.</span> </div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Hahnemann pursued his studies vigorously throughout his boyhood and became a gifted linguist, proficient in German, English, French, Italian, Greek, Hebrew, Latin and Arabic. Towards the end of his teens he developed an interest in the sciences and medicine in particular. He eventually trained as a doctor, studying at Leipzig and Vienna before finally qualifying at Erlangen in 1779.</span></div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1782, at the age of 27, Hahnemann married Johanna Henriette Kuchler, the daughter of an apothecary. They ultimately produced a family of 11 children - 9 daughters and 2 sons. Hahnemann became a Medical Doctor in 1781 and practiced conventional medicine. During the early years of the marriage he derived his income from a combination of medical practise and the translation of medical and scientific texts. Once in practice, Hahnemann became disillusioned with the medical practises of the day.</span></div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Over the first 10 years of his practice Hahnemann resorted to treating patients as far as possible by diet and exercise, using a minimum of drugs and other harmful practises. By 1790, he felt he could no longer continue to even do this and gave up his practice all-together. In latter years he wrote: "My sense of duty would not easily allow me to treat the unknown pathological state of my suffering brethren with these unknown medicines…The thought of becoming in this way a murderer or malefactor towards the life of my fellow human beings was most terrible to me, so terrible and disturbing that I wholly gave up my practice in the first years of my married life … and occupied myself solely with chemistry and writing." (Haehl, Reprint 1992, Vol 1, p.64). Also: "After the discovery of the weakness and misconceptions of my teachers and my books I sank into a state of morbid indignation, which might almost have completely vitiated for me the study of medical knowledge I was about to believe that the whole science was of no avail and incapable of improvement. I gave myself up to my own individual cognitions and determined to fix no goal for my considerations until I should have arrived at a decisive conclusion." (Dudgeon, 1993 Reprint, p. 410).</span></div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">For some time Hahnemann lived in considerable poverty with his wife and children, earning a living from writing and translation alone. He is described by a friend of that period as living with his family in a single room divided by a curtain, pursuing his own investigations by day and staying up every second night to do translation work to provide food for his family. Hahnemann first stumbled across the phenomena that he was later to call the homœopathic action of drugs in the year that he gave up his practice. When translating A Treatise on the Materia Medica by the Edinburgh physician, William Cullen, he read that the drug cinchona (china or quinine) was effective in the treatment of malaria because it was bitter and astringent and had a toning effect on the stomach. Hahnemann was not satisfied by this statement for, if it were true, then all bitter, astringent substances should likewise be effective in the treatment of malaria, and they were not.</span></div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Hahnemann decided to experiment with the effects of cinchona upon himself and discovered that the side-effects, or symptoms, that it produced in him were similar to the symptoms of malaria. He subsequently speculated that the curative action of the drug may lie in the similarity of the symptoms of the malarial disease and the symptoms able to be produced by the drug. Thus the first homeopathic proving, and the discovery of the first law of homeopathy: Similia similibus curentur, or "like cures like". Hahnemann named this newfound therapy "Homeo" (similar) "pathy" (suffering). As a result, he began to test other drugs of the day, such as belladonna, camphor, and aconitum, to study the symptoms that they produced. On the results of these experiments, he began to think seriously about a new medical principle, the principle of cure by similars but his methods were met with disbelief and ridicule by his contemporaries.</span></span> </div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Although his patients were experiencing profound cures which solidly verified his theories, Hahnemann was marked as an outcast because his method of single and minimum dosage was threatening the financial foundation of the powerful apothecaries. Hahnemann focused on reducing the dose to the point where there were no side effects but he was unsatisfied because this step further rendered the dose insufficient in strength to act. He experimented with a new method whereby after each dilution he would shake the substance vigorously. This he called "succussion" thus developing the energetic aspect of homeopathy. It is unknown how Hahnemann reasoned this (still scientifically unexplainable) method of "potentization".</span></span> </div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1810, Hahnemann published the first of six editions of The Organon which clearly defined his homeopathic philosophy. In the same year, 80,000 men were killed when Napoleon attacked Liepzig. Hahnemann's homeopathic treatment of the survivors, and also of the victims of the great typhus epidemic that followed the siege, was highly successful and further spread his, and homeopathy's, reputation. Hahnemann taught at the Liepzig University where his lectures would often shift into sharp tongued diatribes against the dangerous practices of conventional medicine, thus nicknamed "Raging Hurricane" by his students. By 1821 Hahnemann had proven sixty-six remedies and published his Materia Medica Pura in six volumes. In 1831, Cholera swept through Central Europe. Hahnemann published papers on the homeopathic treatment of the disease and instigated the first widespread usage of homeopathy which had a 96% cure rate as compared to allopathy's 41% rate.</span></div><div align="JUSTIFY"><br />
</div><div align="JUSTIFY" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1834 Hahnemann met the avant-garde Parisian, Mademoiselle Marie Melanie d'Hervilly. They were married (his second marriage, her first) within six months, and settled in Paris. In spite of the fact he was more than twice her age, they remained very intimate, she working by his side in his active practice until July 2, 1843 when Hahnemann died, in Paris, at the age of eighty-eight.</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-50899384411549723452011-02-04T16:04:00.000+06:002011-02-04T16:04:21.152+06:00Biography of Karl Marx<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzE4a0aKpOOfmjnTIrko75Ejr7AlkdCUu5N09hz3eyOoryY8GBirXiZWNAfCyMi5ShDPm37TjZ7xPZVTG9QSlLcQMOLXm6SsrAxhRzf6xq5sC45IjiPU3QTx8i73FBdyB2fhehidK99iFY/s1600/karl-marx.240.376.s.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzE4a0aKpOOfmjnTIrko75Ejr7AlkdCUu5N09hz3eyOoryY8GBirXiZWNAfCyMi5ShDPm37TjZ7xPZVTG9QSlLcQMOLXm6SsrAxhRzf6xq5sC45IjiPU3QTx8i73FBdyB2fhehidK99iFY/s200/karl-marx.240.376.s.gif" width="127" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Biography of Karl Marx (1818-1883)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><em>The worker becomes all the poorer the more wealth he produces, the more his production increases in power and range. The worker becomes an ever cheaper commodity the more commodities he creates. With the </em>increasing value<em> of the world of things proceeds in direct proportion to the </em>devaluation<em> of the world of men. Labour produces not only commodities; it produces itself and the worker as a </em>commodity<em> -- and does so in the proportion in which it produces commodities generally.</em></b></span> </div><div align="right" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Marx, <em>Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts</em> (1844)</b></span></div><div align="right" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">The philosopher, social scientist, historian and revolutionary, Karl Marx, is without a doubt the most influential socialist thinker to emerge in the 19th century. Although he was largely ignored by scholars in his own lifetime, his social, economic and political ideas gained rapid acceptance in the socialist movement after his death in 1883. Until quite recently almost half the population of the world lived under regimes that claim to be Marxist. This very success, however, has meant that the original ideas of Marx have often been modified and his meanings adapted to a great variety of political circumstances. In addition, the fact that Marx delayed publication of many of his writings meant that is been only recently that scholars had the opportunity to appreciate Marx's intellectual stature.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Karl Heinrich Marx was born into a comfortable middle-class home in Trier on the river Moselle in Germany on May 5, 1818. He came from a long line of rabbis on both sides of his family and his father, a man who knew Voltaire and Lessing by heart, had agreed to baptism as a Protestant so that he would not lose his job as one of the most respected lawyers in Trier. At the age of seventeen, Marx enrolled in the Faculty of Law at the University of Bonn. At Bonn he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, the daughter of Baron von Westphalen , a prominent member of Trier society, and man responsible for interesting Marx in Romantic literature and Saint-Simonian politics. The following year Marx's father sent him to the more serious University of Berlin where he remained four years, at which time he abandoned his romanticism for the Hegelianism which ruled in Berlin at the time.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Marx became a member of the Young Hegelian movement. This group, which included the theologians Bruno Bauer and David Friedrich Strauss, produced a radical critique of Christianity and, by implication, the liberal opposition to the Prussian autocracy. Finding a university career closed by the Prussian government, Marx moved into journalism and, in October 1842, became editor, in Cologne, of the influential Rheinische Zeitung, a liberal newspaper backed by industrialists. Marx's articles, particularly those on economic questions, forced the Prussian government to close the paper. Marx then emigrated to France.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Arriving in Paris at the end of 1843, Marx rapidly made contact with organized groups of émigré German workers and with various sects of French socialists. He also edited the short-lived </span>Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> which was intended to bridge French socialism and the German radical Hegelians. During his first few months in Paris, Marx became a communist and set down his views in a series of writings known as the </span>Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1844), which remained unpublished until the 1930s. In the </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Manuscripts</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, Marx outlined a humanist conception of communism, influenced by the philosophy of Ludwig Feuerbach and based on a contrast between the alienated nature of labor under capitalism and a communist society in which human beings freely developed their nature in cooperative production. It was also in Paris that Marx developed his lifelong partnership with Friedrich Engels (1820-1895).</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Marx was expelled from Paris at the end of 1844 and with Engels, moved to Brussels where he remained for the next three years, visiting England where Engels' family had cotton spinning interests in Manchester. While in Brussels Marx devoted himself to an intensive study of history and elaborated what came to be known as the materialist conception of history. This he developed in a manuscript (published posthumously as The German Ideology), of which the basic thesis was that "the nature of individuals depends on the material conditions determining their production." Marx traced the history of the various modes of production and predicted the collapse of the present one -- industrial capitalism -- and its replacement by communism.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">At the same time Marx was composing The German Ideology, he also wrote a polemic (The Poverty of Philosophy) against the idealistic socialism of P. J. Proudhon (1809-1865). He also joined the Communist League. This was an organization of German émigré workers with its center in London of which Marx and Engels became the major theoreticians. At a conference of the League in London at the end of 1847 Marx and Engels were commissioned to write a succinct declaration of their position. Scarcely was The Communist Manifesto</span> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">published than the 1848 wave of revolutions broke out in Europe.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Early in 1848 Marx moved back to Paris when a revolution first broke out and onto Germany where he founded, again in Cologne, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung. The paper supported a radical democratic line against the Prussian autocracy and Marx devoted his main energies to its editorship since the Communist League had been virtually disbanded. Marx's paper was suppressed and he sought refuge in London in May 1849 to begin the "long, sleepless night of exile" that was to last for the rest of his life.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Settling in London, Marx was optimistic about the imminence of a new revolutionary outbreak in Europe. He rejoined the Communist League and wrote two lengthy pamphlets on the 1848 revolution in France and its aftermath, The Class Struggles in France and The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. He was soon convinced that "a new revolution is possible only in consequence of a new crisis" and then devoted himself to the study of political economy in order to determine the causes and conditions of this crisis.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">During the first half of the 1850s the Marx family lived in poverty in a three room flat in the Soho quarter of London. Marx and Jenny already had four children and two more were to follow. Of these only three survived. Marx's major source of income at this time was Engels who was trying a steadily increasing income from the family business in Manchester. This was supplemented by weekly articles written as a foreign correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Marx's major work on political economy made slow progress. By 1857 he had produced a gigantic 800 page manuscript on capital, landed property, wage labor, the state, foreign trade and the world market. The Grundrisse (or Outlines) was not published until 1941. In the early 1860s he broke off his work to compose three large volumes, Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo. It was not until 1867 that Marx was able to publish the first results of his work in volume 1 of Capital, a work which analyzed the capitalist process of production. In Capital, Marx elaborated his version of the labor theory value and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit in the collapse of industrial capitalism. Volumes II and III were finished during the 1860s but Marx worked on the manuscripts for the rest of his life and they were published posthumously by Engels.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">One reason why Marx was so slow to publish Capital was that he was devoting his time and energy to the First International, to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864. He was particularly active in preparing for the annual Congresses of the International and leading the struggle against the anarchist wing led by Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876).</span> </div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International. The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. On the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, The Civil War in France, an enthusiastic defense of the Commune.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he was incapable of sustained effort that had so characterized his previous work. He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. In Germany, he opposed in his Critique of the Gotha Programme, the tendency of his followers Wilhelm LiebknechtAugust Bebel (1840-1913) to compromise with state socialism of Lasalle in the interests of a united socialist party. In his correspondence with Vera Zasulich Marx contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Marx's health did not improve. He traveled to European spas and even to Algeria in search of recuperation. The deaths of his eldest daughter and his wife clouded the last years of his life. Marx died March 14, 1883 and was buried at Highgate Cemetery in North London. His collaborator and close friend Friedrich Engels delivered the following eulogy three days later:</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span> </div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><em>On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep -- but for ever.</em></span><u><b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><br />
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<em><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An immeasurable loss has been sustained both by the militant proletariat of Europe and America, and by historical science, in the death of this man. The gap that has been left by the departure of this mighty spirit will soon enough make itself felt.</span></span></em><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Just as Darwin discovered the law of development or organic nature, so Marx discovered the law of development of human history: the simple fact, hitherto concealed by an overgrowth of ideology, that mankind must first of all eat, drink, have shelter and clothing, before it can pursue politics, science, art, religion, etc.; that therefore the production of the immediate material means, and consequently the degree of economic development attained by a given people or during a given epoch, form the foundation upon which the state institutions, the legal conceptions, art, and even the ideas on religion, of the people concerned have been evolved, and in the light of which they must, therefore, be explained, instead of vice versa, as had hitherto been the case.</span></em><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">But that is not all. Marx also discovered the special law of motion governing the present-day capitalist mode of production, and the bourgeois society that this mode of production has created. The discovery of surplus value suddenly threw light on the problem, in trying to solve which all previous investigations, of both bourgeois economists and socialist critics, had been groping in the dark. </span></span></em><br />
<em><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> </span></span></em> <br />
<em><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Two such discoveries would be enough for one lifetime. Happy the man to whom it is granted to make even one such discovery. But in every single field which Marx investigated -- and he investigated very many fields, none of them superficially -- in every field, even in that of mathematics, he made independent discoveries.</span></span></em><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Such was the man of science. But this was not even half the man. Science was for Marx a historically dynamic, revolutionary force. However great the joy with which he welcomed a new discovery in some theoretical science whose practical application perhaps it was as yet quite impossible to envisage, he experienced quite another kind of joy when the discovery involved immediate revolutionary changes in industry, and in historical development in general. For example, he followed closely the development of the discoveries made in the field of electricity and recently those of Marcel Deprez.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">For Marx was before all else a revolutionist. His real mission in life was to contribute, in one way or another, to the overthrow of capitalist society and of the state institutions which it had brought into being, to contribute to the liberation of the modern proletariat, which he was the first to make conscious of its own position and its needs, conscious of the conditions of its emancipation. Fighting was his element. And he fought with a passion, a tenacity and a success such as few could rival. His work on the first </span></span></em><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Rheinische Zeitung</span><em style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1842), the Paris </em><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Vorwarts</span><em style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1844), the </em><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Deutsche Brusseler Zeitung</span><em style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1847), the </em><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Neue Rheinische Zeitung</span><em style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1848-49), the </em><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">New York Tribune</span></span><em><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1852-61), and, in addition to these, a host of militant pamphlets, work in organisations in Paris, Brussels and London, and finally, crowning all, the formation of the great International Working Men's Association -- this was indeed an achievement of which its founder might well have been proud even if he had done nothing else.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">And, consequently, Marx was the best hated and most calumniated man of his time. Governments, both absolutist and republican, deported him from their territories. Bourgeois, whether conservative or ultra-democratic, vied with one another in heaping slanders upon him. All this he brushed aside as though it were a cobweb, ignoring it, answering only when extreme necessity compelled him. And he died beloved, revered and mourned by millions of revolutionary fellow workers -- from the mines of Siberia to California, in all parts of Europe and America -- and I make bold to say that, though he may have had many opponents, he had hardly one personal enemy.</span></em><br />
<em><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">His name will endure through the ages, and so also will his work. </span></span></em><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Marx's contribution to our understanding of society has been enormous. His thought is not the comprehensive system evolved by some of his followers under the name of dialectical materialism. The very dialectical nature of his approach meant that it was usually tentative and open-ended. There was also the tension between Marx the political activist and Marx the student of political economy. Many of his expectations about the future course of the revolutionary movement have, so far, failed to materialize. However, his stress on the economic factor in society and his analysis of the class structure in class conflict have had an enormous influence on history, sociology, and study of human culture.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b> </b></span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-11934012061123641472011-02-04T14:43:00.001+06:002011-02-04T14:47:04.975+06:00Biography of Pablo Neruda<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqSnRE8piVR4A7t7nHL6ORJ3mZITpM_4KTK_sdwqolcGTamRMuGAYPkpl1s0t6t5af8mh-pzx3nacq5uqLKNNla3mttriDMuP22OFWdnRsiMhgkrK-z4LUQKb-LHRMQ42OsRpKIJ0FAacz/s1600/PABLO_NERUDA_by_Zherj.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqSnRE8piVR4A7t7nHL6ORJ3mZITpM_4KTK_sdwqolcGTamRMuGAYPkpl1s0t6t5af8mh-pzx3nacq5uqLKNNla3mttriDMuP22OFWdnRsiMhgkrK-z4LUQKb-LHRMQ42OsRpKIJ0FAacz/s200/PABLO_NERUDA_by_Zherj.jpg" width="148" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Biography of Pablo Neruda (1904-1973)</b></span><br />
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<div style="color: white; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pablo Neruda's </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">Original name Neftalí Ricardo Reyes Basoalto</span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">This Chilean poet, and diplomat, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1971. His original name was Neftali Ricardo Reyes Basoalto, but he used the pen name Pablo Neruda for over 20 years before adopting it legally in 1946. Neruda is the most widely read of the Spanish American poets. From the 1940s on, his works reflected the political struggle of the left and the socio-historical developments in South America. He also wrote love poems. Neruda's Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair (1924) have sold over a million copies since it first appeared.</span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Sucede que me canso de ser hombre. </span></b><b><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Sucede que entro es las sasterías y en los cines </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">marchito, impenetrable, como un cisne de fieltro </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">navegando en un agua de origen y ceniza."</span></b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;">(from 'Walking Around'</span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">) </span></span></blockquote><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">(I happen to be tired of being a man <br />
I happen to enter tailor shops and movie houses <br />
withered, impenetrable, like a felt swan <br />
navigating in a water of sources and ashes.)</span></b></blockquote><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Pablo Neruda was born Neftalí Ricardo Reyes Basoalto in Parral, a small town in central Chile. His father, don José del Carmen Reyes Morales, was a poor railway worker. Rosa Basoalto de Reyes, Nerusa's mother, was a schoolteacher, who died of tuberculosis when Neruda was an infant. Don José Carmen moved with his sons in 1906 to Temuco, and married Trinidad Candia Marvedre. Neruda started to write poetry when he was ten years old. At the age of 12 he met the Chilean poet Gabriela Mistral, who encouraged his literary efforts. The American poet Walt Whitman, whose framed portrait Neruda later kept on his table, become a major influence on his work. "I, a poet who writes in Spanish, learned more from Walt Whitman than from Cervantes," Neruda said in 1972 in a speech during a visit in the United States.</span> <br />
<div style="color: black; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Neruda's first serious literary achievement, an article, appeared in the magazine La MananaCorre-Vuela<i>.</i> (1918). To avoid conflict with his family, who disapproved his literary ambitions, he published poems in the magazine Selva Austral, using the pen name Pablo Neruda. From 1921 he studied French at the Instituto Pedagógico in Santiago. In 1924 Neruda gained international fame as an writer with VEINTE POEMAS DE AMOR Y UNA CANCÍON, which is his most widely read work. (1917). It was followed by the poem, 'Mis ojos', which appeared in </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"> </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Corre-Vuela.</i> (1918). To avoid conflict with his family, who disapproved his literary ambitions, he published poems in the magazine <i>Selva Austral</i>, using the pen name Pablo Neruda. From 1921 he studied French at the Instituto Pedagógico in Santiago. In 1924 Neruda gained international fame as an writer with VEINTE POEMAS DE AMOR Y UNA CANCÍON, which is his most widely read work.</span></div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">At the age of only 23 Neruda was appointed by the Chilean government as consul to Burma (now Myanmar). He held diplomatic posts in various East Asian and European Countries, befriending among others the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. Neruda continued to contribute to several literary and other magazines, among them La Nación, El Sol, and Revista de Occidente. He also started to edit in 1935 a literary publication, Caballo Verde para la Poesía.</span></div><div style="color: black; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><blockquote><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">"We did meet forty years ago. At that time we were both influenced by Whitman and I said, jokingly in part, 'I don't think anything can be done in Spanish, do you?' Neruda agreed, but we decided it was too late for us to write our verse in English. We'd have to make the best of a second-rate literature."</span> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">(from </span></span><i style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Jorge Luis Borges</span></i><i style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">: Conversations</span></i><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;">, ed. by Richard Burgin, 1998)</span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After Neruda ended his affair with the possessive and violently jealous Josie Bliss, he married in 1930 María Antonieta Hagenaar, a Dutch woman who couldn't speak Spanish; they separated in 1936. At that time Neruda lived in Paris, where he published with Nancy Cunard the journal Los Poetas del Mundo Defiende al Pueblo Español<i>.</i> Nancy Cunard was the sole inheritor of the famous Cunard shipping company, who later followed Neruda to Chile with a bullfighter. Her mother disinherited her when she escaped from high society with a black musician. In the 1930s and 1940s Neruda lived with the Argentine painter Delia del Carril, who encouraged Neruda to participate in politics. Neruda and Delia del Carril married in 1943, but the marriage was not recognized in Chile; they separated in 1955. Neruda married in 1966 the Chilean singer Matilde Urrutia. She was the inspiration of much of Neruda's later poetry, among others One Hundred Love Sonnets (1960).</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Neruda's first volume of RECIDENCIA EN LA TIERRE (1933) was a visionary work, written in the Far East but emerging from the birth of European fascism. During his Marxist period, Neruda rejected the Residencia (1933, 1935, 1947) cycle, but in 1960 he urged to include poems from it to an anthology of his verse. In 1935-36 he was in Spain but he resigned from his post because he sided with the Spanish Republicans. After the leftist candidate don Pedro Aguirre Cerda won the presidental election, Neruda again was appointed consul, this time to Paris, where he helped Spanish refugees by re-settling them in Chile. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1942 Neruda visited Cuba and read for the first time his poem, 'Canto de amor para Stalingrado', which praised the Red Army fighting in Stalingrad. His daughter, Malva Marina, died in the same year in Europe. Neruda joined the Communist Party, and in 1945 he was elected to the Chilean Senate. He attacked President González Videla in print and when the government was taken by right-wing extremists, he fled to Mexico. He travelled to the Soviet Union, where he was warmly received, and in other Eastern European countries. He met Ilya Ehrenburg, whose home was full of works by Picasso, and the Turkish poet Nazim Hikmet, who lived in exile in Moscow. The Soviet Union was for Neruda a country, where libraries, universities, and theatres were open for all. Neruda was especially impressed by the vastness of Russia, its birch forests, and rivers. He referred to dogmatism in the Soviet art, but optimistically believed that these tendencies had been condemned. Neruda's colleagues also read him Boris Pasternak's poems but they did not forget to mention that Pasternak was considered as a political reactionary.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In exile Neruda produced CANTO GENERAL (1950), a monumental work of 340 poems. </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>"</b>Come up with me, American love. / Kiss these secret stones with me. / The torrential silver of the Urubamba / makes the pollen fly to its golden cup. The hollow of the bindweed's maze, the petrified plant, the inflexible garland, soar above the silence of these mountain coffers." </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">(From 'The Heights of Macchu Picchu'.) In this work Neruda examined Latin American history from a Marxist point of view, and showed his deep knowledge about the history, geography and politics of the continent. The central theme is the struggle for social justice. <i>Canto general </i> includes Neruda's famous poem 'Alturas de Macchu Picchu', which was born after he visited the Incan ruins of Macchu Picchu in 1943. In it Neruda aspires to become the voice of the dead people who once lived in the city.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><blockquote><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>"I want to know, salt of the roads, </b></span><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> show me the spoon - architecture, let me </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> scratch at the stamens of stone with a little stick, </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> ascend the rungs of the air up to the void, </span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> scrape the innards until I touch mankind."</span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"> <span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">(from 'The Heights of Macchu Picchu') </span></span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">While in exile, Neruda travelled in Italy, where he lived for a while. After the victory of the anti-Videla forces and the order to arrest leftist was rescinded, Neruda returned to Chile. During a visit to Buenos Aires in 1957 Neruda was arrested and he spent a restless night in jail. Just before he was released, a policeman gave him a poem, devoted to the famous author. Neruda was awarded in 1953 the Stalin Prize. He remained faithful to "el partido" when a number of intellectuals had already rejected Moscow's leash; poetry was not for Neruda simply an expression of emotions and personality, it was "a deep inner calling in man; from it came liturgy, the psalms, and also the content of religions." </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(from <i>Memoirs</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">, 1974). However, Neruda's faith was deeply shaken in 1956 by Khrushchev's revelation at the Twentieth Party Congress of the crimes committed during the Stalin regime. Neruda's collection EXTRAVAGARIO (1958), in which he turned to his youth, reflects this change in his opinions. He presents the reader with his daily life and examines critically his Marxist beliefs.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Establishing a permanent home on the Isla Negra, Neruda continued to travel extensively, visiting Cuba in 1960 and the United States in 1966. After Salvador Allende was elected president, Neruda was appointed Chile's ambassador to France (1970-72). Neruda died of leukemia in Santiago on 23 September in 1973. His death was probably accelerated by the murder of Allende and tragedies caused by Pinochet coup. After Neruda's death his home in Valparaiso and Santiago were robbed. During his long literary career, Neruda produced more than forty volumes of poetry, translations, and verse drama. Neruda is recognized to be among the major poets of the 20th century. Positive criticism have not managed to soften the edges of his vision.</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">"He was once referred as the Picasso of poetry, alluding to his protean ability to be always in the vanguard of change. And he himself has often alluded to his personal struggle with his own tradition, to his constant need to search for a new system in each book."</span></b><b> </b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">(Rene de Costa in </span><i style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">The Poetry of Pablo Neruda</i><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">, 1979) </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"></span></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-32701981508952700332011-02-04T12:25:00.001+06:002011-02-04T12:26:38.618+06:00Biography of Charles Darwin<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4g1vF_tKZURJ59cCcEVjtQDyN2PnxJraBvLYPIFcJT2P2MPhn3gBByIyui4TJz2TXrbrLP8FfdtaQU0Skt5I53ntSh3Q5EZpB2kJPtFJ529jX1TlTZGHkTl3I3ifJfdOrm3Q6X2GV9O1u/s1600/111126-25.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4g1vF_tKZURJ59cCcEVjtQDyN2PnxJraBvLYPIFcJT2P2MPhn3gBByIyui4TJz2TXrbrLP8FfdtaQU0Skt5I53ntSh3Q5EZpB2kJPtFJ529jX1TlTZGHkTl3I3ifJfdOrm3Q6X2GV9O1u/s200/111126-25.jpg" width="187" /></a></div><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">Biography of Charles Darwin (1809-1882)</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Charles Darwin was born on February 12<sup>th</sup> 1809 at Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. He was the fifth child of Robert Waring Darwin and his wife Susannah; and the grandson of the physician-scientist Erasmus Darwin, and of the pottery magnate Josiah Wedgwood. His mother died in July 1817 when he was eight years old, and he was brought up by his sister, Caroline.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He was taught in accordance with a Greek language based classics curriculum at Shrewsbury from 1818-1825. Although he had not proved to have much academic aptitude at school in Shrewsbury he then went to Edinburgh to study medicine but did not make worthwhile progress. In his autobiography he mentions that;-</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>"soon after this period I became convinced from various small circumstances that my Father would leave me property enough to subsist on with some comfort ... my belief was sufficient to check any strenuous effort to learn medicine".</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Another attempt at securing a gentleman's education and career was made, after his father had suggested the Church, by sending him to Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1827, to study theology with a view to becoming ordained as a clergyman.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">During his Cambridge years he did not immerse himself in Theological studies but rather fell in with a set who were keen on fox-hunting and game shooting. He also loved to collect plants, insects, and geological specimens, guided by his cousin William Darwin Fox, an entomologist. He developed a particular interest in collecting beetles, the rarer in species the better. His autobiography quotes one particular beetle hunt in detail:-</span></span><br />
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<i> </i><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>"I will give a proof of my zeal: one day on tearing off some old bark, I saw two rare beetles and seized one in each hand; then I saw a third and new kind, which I could not bear to lose, so that I popped the one which I held in my right hand into my mouth. Alas it ejected some intensely acrid fluid, which burnt my tongue so that I was forced to spit the beetle out, which was lost, as well as the third one".</b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">His modest and untrained scientific inclinations were encouraged by Alan Sedgewick, a geologist and also by a botany professor, John Stevens Henslow, who was instrumental, despite heavy paternal opposition, in securing a unpaid place for Darwin as a naturalist on a long term scientific expedition that was to be made by HMS Beagle. In fact he only won parental consent to his joining the HMS Beagle after his uncle, Josiah Wedgewood II, spoke on his behalf. The intended career in the church had, at no time, been explicitly abandoned but his gaining the place on the HMS Beagle meant that he took another path in life.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He was only twenty-two years old when the HMS Beagle left Devonport harbour on 27</span><sup style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">th</sup></span> December 1831. Also on board were three Tierra del Fuegan aboriginals who had acquired a veneer of westernisation since being brought to England three years previously - the Beagle was to repatriate them.<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">During the subsequent five-year long expedition the Beagle visited amongst other places the Cape Verde Islands (where there was a volcano), Brazil, Argentina and Chile (where there was an earthquake). In the Galápagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador, Darwin observed that each island supported its own form of tortoise, mockingbird, and finch; the various forms were closely related but differed in structure and eating habits from island to island. Both observations raised the question of possible links between distinct but similar species.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The HMS Beagle visited many lands in the southern Pacific seas before returning to England via the southern Cape of Africa in an effective circumnavigation of the globe. It was to be October in 1836 before the expedition found its way back to the south coast of England. During the expedition Darwin had proved useful beyond his duties as a naturalist. As a young and very fit man he seems to have in more than one case accomplished tasks that saved the expedition from disaster.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On setting out in 1831 Darwin's interests seems to have been primarily in Geology. In Chile the earthquake he had witnessed was accompanied by evident changes in the elevation of the land. He found fossils of sea life in the high Andes. His observations of the growth of Coral in the southern Pacific led him to recognise that the entire bed of the Ocean must be subject to significant raisings and fallings.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Later during the HMS Beagle's voyage Darwin's interest seems to have become more focussed on the species of birds and animals he encountered. His five years of observation and adventure left him with much scope for speculation on the subject of the diversity of species. Prior to these times it had been assumed that species were of a fixed type. His thoughts began to increasingly challenge the assumption of the immutability of species.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Darwin was greatly influenced by Thomas Malthus' <i>Essay on the Principle of Population</i> that suggested that populations would reproduce up to the limit set by their food supply and, at that limit, there would be a dire struggle for food. After reading Malthus' book Darwin's primary focus in his theorising of the diversity of species centered on the gaining of food - food being necessary both to survive and to breed.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">His speculations saw variations in type from a present species occuring randomly and those variations that favoured the winning of food would tend to ensure preferential survival and reproduction. There would not only be severe pressures within species towards the survival of efficient food gainers but there would also be severe pressures between species that were in competition for the same food sources. Through such speculations Darwin formulated what increasingly seemed to him to be a realistic theory of the evolutionary origin of species but, between academic caution and also due to the fact that he was the sort of person who shied away from involvement in controversy, he did not attempt to make his theory known to scientific colleagues let alone the wider public.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Darwin became secretary of the Geological Society (1838-41). In January 1839 he was elected to membership of the Royal Society and also married his first cousin Emma Wedgewood (1808-96). They were later to become parents to ten children.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">From 1842 the family lived at Downe House, Downe, Kent. Darwin's life was that of a country gentleman of independent means among his gardens, conservatories, pigeons, and fowls. The practical knowledge he gained there through experimentation, especially in variation and interbreeding, proved invaluable. His private means enabled him to devote himself to science, by 1846 he had published several works on the geological and zoological discoveries of his voyage - works that placed him in the front rank of scientists.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">He suffered ill-health, which had set in to some extent even before his marriage, this meant that he adopted a retired lifestyle. It was not realized until after his death that he had suffered from Chagas disease, which he seems to have contracted during an onslaught of insect bites while in South America in 1835.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">We now come to the times of the presentation of the theory of the evolutionary origin of species before a wider public. Darwin had been intermittently adding to his theorisings - but to refer to a direct quotation from his autobiography:-</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Early in 1856 Lyell advised me to write out my views pretty fully, and I began at once to do so on a scale three or four times as extensive as that which was afterwards followed by my Origin of Species; yet it was only an abstract of the materials which I had collected, and I had got through about half the work on this scale. But my plans were overthrown, for early in the summer of 1858 Mr. Wallace, who was then in the Malay Archipelago, sent me an essay "On the tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the original type"; and this essay (arrived June 18<sup>th</sup>) contained exactly the same theory as mine. Mr. Wallace expressed the wish that if I thought well of his essay, I should send it to Lyell for perusal. The circumstances under which I consented at the request of Lyell and Hooker to allow an extract from my own M.S., together with a letter to Asa Grey dated September 5 1857, to be published at the same time with Wallace's essay, are given in the Journal of the Linnean Society 1858 p.45. I was at first very unwilling to consent, as I thought that Mr. Wallace might consider my doing so unjustifiable, for I did not then know how generous and noble was his disposition...</span></b></span><br />
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<i> </i><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>...Nevertheless our joint productions excited very little attention.</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This lack of an immediate reaction should perhaps be seen in a context where other scientists and thinkers had already suggested that life forms do change over time. A key difference about the new approach just presented was its inherent plausibility as providing a theoretical mechanism whereby changes in species, that had nothing to do with "God", were entirely to be expected. The case made was that there was a constant struggle for survival where those individuals who were "fittest" in terms of their ability to gain sufficient nourishment would survive and would reproductively generate a possibly adapted species.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">As this inherent plausibility became obvious to increasingly wider circles of people it meant that traditional beliefs and mind sets would inevitably come under serious challenge.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The joint presention to the Linnean Society had taken place on 1</span><sup style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">st</sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> July 1858. Neither Darwin nor Alfred Russel Wallace was present on that historic occasion. Wallace was still in foreign parts whilst Darwin had the painful experience of being present at the funeral of one of his children - an eighteen-month-old son who had contracted scarlet fever.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Following on from the presentation to the Linnean Society Darwin set to work to condense his vast mass of notes into the preparation of an article for inclusion in the journal of the Society. In the event a journal article seemed to give insufficient scope to relate all that he wished and this resulted in his assembling and shaping his great work, </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On the Origin of the Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured races in the Struggle for Life</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">, published in November 1859. This work, which was momentously challenging of numerous accepted beliefs and attitudes, sold out on its day of publication and later went through a number of editions. It was received througout Europe with the deepest interest and was often violently attacked because it did not agree with the account of creation given in the Book of Genesis, but eventually it succeeded in obtaining recognition from almost all biologists.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Darwin's theory of the evolutionary origin of species was taken up by other persons who were more inclined to state controversial opinions than Darwin himself. Perhaps the most notable of these being Thomas Henry Huxley who was the first person to overtly claim that man must be a product of such evolutionary processes and was to become known as Darwin's Bulldog, a term that Huxley himself possibly coined, because of the resolute way in which he sought to promote Darwin's theory of the evolutionary origin of species.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">An overall effect of the ever wider spread of Darwinism was to make religious faith seem to be in many ways less credible and less reasonable. People's faith in Science meanwhile, despite the many profoundly unflattering connotations of Darwinism, was enhanced.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Darwin continued to work at a series of supplemental treatises: <i>The Fertilization of Orchids</i><i>The Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication</i> (1867), and <i>The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i> (1871), which postulated that the human race derived from a hairy animal belonging to the great anthropoid group, and was related to the progenitors of the orang-utan, chimpanzee, and gorilla. In his 1871 work he also developed his important supplementary theory of sexual selection.</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1862), </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Later works include </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1872), </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Insectivorous Plants</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1875), </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1876), </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Different Forms of Flowers in Plants of the Same Species</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1877), and </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Formations of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> (1881).</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Charles Darwin was elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1878.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Darwin died at Downe on 19</span><sup style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">th</sup><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> April 1882 after a long illness. Following on from the suggestion of a group of members of parliament he was accorded the honour of being buried in Westminster Abbey </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">quite close to where John Herschel and Issac Newton have been buried.</span></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> Several eminent scientists acted as pall bearers, numerous foreign dignitaries were in attendance.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Darwin left behind him eight children, several of whom achieved great distinction - three received knighthoods for their services to various branches of science.</span></span> </div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-5019105781472798782011-02-04T11:50:00.000+06:002011-02-04T11:50:37.547+06:00Biography of Plato<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJFEIIJzKWL5TAl53v30yWiWQqPoZgVFjORsMR4S54NwwNw6oxbOUwsdWmLXY4eZ2YkWQzGIh6HCbNtkV-DourhmX16tc_rsYvgvmIoXY8XmUhtvHlwp_eFvgVpxH_XSrpr7XTnEc8LRmF/s1600/Plato4.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJFEIIJzKWL5TAl53v30yWiWQqPoZgVFjORsMR4S54NwwNw6oxbOUwsdWmLXY4eZ2YkWQzGIh6HCbNtkV-DourhmX16tc_rsYvgvmIoXY8XmUhtvHlwp_eFvgVpxH_XSrpr7XTnEc8LRmF/s200/Plato4.gif" width="180" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Plato (427-347 B.C.)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><strong style="font-weight: normal;">Plato</strong> was born around the year 428 BCE in Athens. His father died while Plato was young, and his mother remarried to Pyrilampes, in whose house Plato would grow up. Plato's birth name was Aristocles, and he gained the nickname Platon, meaning broad, because of his broad build. His family had a history in politics, and Plato was destined to a life in keeping with this history. He studied at a gymnasium owned by Dionysios, and at the palaistra of Ariston of Argos. When he was young he studied music and poetry. According to Aristotle, Plato developed the foundations of his metaphysics and epistemology by studying the doctrines of Cratylus, and the work of Pythagoras and Parmenides. When Plato met Socrates, however, he had met his definitive teacher. As Socrates' disciple, Plato adopted his philosophy and style of debate, and directed his studies toward the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Plato was in military service from 409 BC to 404 BC. When the Peloponnesian War ended in 404 BC he joined the Athenian oligarchy of the Thirty Tyrants, one of whose leaders was his uncle Charmides. The violence of this group quickly prompted Plato to leave it. In 403 BC, when democracy was restored in Athens, he had hopes of pursuing his original goal of a political career. Socrates' execution in 399 BC had a profound effect on Plato, and was perhaps the final event that would convince him to leave Athenian politics forever.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Plato left Attica along with other friends of Socrates and traveled for the next twelve years. To all accounts it appears that he left Athens with Euclides for Megara, then went to visit Theodorus in Cyrene, moved on to study with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and finally to Egypt. During this period he studied the philosophy of his contemporaries, geometry, geology, astronomy and religion.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After 399 BC Plato began to write extensively. It is still up for debate whether he was writing before Socrates' death, and the order in which he wrote his major texts is also uncertain. However, most scholars agree to divide Plato's major work into three distinct groups. The first of these is known as the <em></em>Socratic Dialogues<em></em> because of how close he stays within the text to Socrates' teachings. They were probably written during the years of his travels between 399 and 387 BC. One of the texts in this group called the <em>Apology</em> seems to have been written shortly after Socrates' death. Other texts relegated to this group include the <em>Crito, Laches, Lysis, Charmides, Euthyphro</em>, and <em>Hippias Minor</em> and <em>Major</em>.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The period from 387 to 361 BC is often called Plato's "middle" or transitional period. It is thought that he may have written the <em>Meno, Euthydemus, Menexenus, Cratylus, Repuglic, Phaedrus, Syposium</em> and <em>Phaedo</em> during this time. The major difference between these texts and his earlier works is that he tends toward grander metaphysical themes and begins to establish his own voice in philosophy. Socrates still has a presence, however, sometimes as a fictional character. In the <em>Meno</em> for example Plato writes of the Socratic idea that no one knowingly does wrong, and adds the new doctrine of recollection questioning whether virtue can be taught. In the <em>Phaedo</em> we are introduced to the Platonic doctrine of the Forms, in which Plato makes claims as to the immortality of the human soul. The middle dialogues also reveal Plato's method of hypothesis.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Plato's most influential work, The <em>Republic</em>, is also a part of his middle dialogues. It is a discussion of the virtues of justice, courage, wisdom, and moderation, of the individual and in society. It works with the central question of how to live a good life, asking what an ideal State would be like, and what defines a just individual. These lead to more questions regarding the education of citizens, how government should be formed, the nature of the soul, and the afterlife. The dialogue finishes by reviewing various forms of government and describing the ideal state, where only philosophers are fit to rule. The <em>Republic</em> covers almost every aspect of Plato's thought.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 367 BC Plato was invited to be the personal tutor to Dionysus II, the new ruler of Syracuse. Plato accepted the invitation, but found on his arrival that the situation was not conducive for philosophy. He continued to teach the young ruler until 365 BC when Syracuse entered into war. Plato returned to Athens, and it was around this time that Plato's famous pupil Aristotle began to study at the Academy. In 361 BC Plato returned to Syracuse in response to a letter from Dion, the uncle and guardian of Dionysus II, begging him to come back. However, finding the situation even more unpleasant than his first visit, he returned to Athens almost as fast as he had come.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Back at the Academy, Plato probably spent the rest of his life writing and conversing. The way he ran the Academy and his ideas of what constitutes an educated individual have been a major influence to education theory. His work has also been influential in the areas of logic and legal philosophy. His beliefs on the importance of mathematics in education has had a lasting influence on the subject, and his insistence on accurate definitions and clear hypotheses formed the foundations for Euclid's system of mathematics.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His final years at the Academy may be the years when he wrote the "Later" dialogues, including the <em>Parmenides, Theatetus, Sophist,Statesmas,Timaeus,Critias,Philebus</em>, and <em>Laws</em>. Socrates has been delegated a minor role in these texts. Plato uses these dialogues to take a closer look at his earlier metaphysical speculations. He discusses art, including dance, music, poetry, architecture and drama, and ethics in regards to immortality, the mind, and Realism. He also works with the philosophy of mathematics, politics and religion, covering such specifics as censorship, atheism, and pantheism. In the area of epistemology he discusses a priori knowledge and Rationalism. In his theory of Forms, Plato suggests that the world of ideas is constant and true, opposing it to the world we perceive through our senses, which is deceptive and changeable.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 347 Plato died, leaving the Academy to his sister's son Speusippus. The Academy remained a model for institutions of higher learning until it was closed, in 529 CE, by the Emperor Justinian.</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-34503145893562904122011-02-04T01:54:00.000+06:002011-02-04T01:54:07.798+06:00Biography of Socrates<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggA9mLkwraqjhThIVihEwZca820b31IVue_bYFW1CBquFPmtAValXFHCsynWQapuTh2hz79brJK6aBUDpZfcDd4I6wGedAqwKsgNDMo6IUCNBRgGtzl3NM8LaeZaYAvGE3lflsGPELwUNi/s1600/socrates_1_lg.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggA9mLkwraqjhThIVihEwZca820b31IVue_bYFW1CBquFPmtAValXFHCsynWQapuTh2hz79brJK6aBUDpZfcDd4I6wGedAqwKsgNDMo6IUCNBRgGtzl3NM8LaeZaYAvGE3lflsGPELwUNi/s200/socrates_1_lg.gif" width="166" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Socrates (469-399 B.C.)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who became very influential in the development of Greek philosophy and, thus, Western philosophy in general. The most extensive knowledge we have of him comes from Plato's many dialogues, but there is a little information about him in the historian Xenophon's Memorabilia, Apology and Symposium, and in Aristophanes' The Clouds and The Wasps. Socrates is best known for the dictum that only the examined life is worth living.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">We have no works written by Socrates and it’s unclear whether he ever wrote anything down himself. We do, however, have dialogues written by Plato which are supposed to be philosophical conversations between Socrates and others. The early dialogues (Charmides, Lysis, and Euthyphro) are believed to be genuine; during the middle period (Republic) Plato began to mix in his own views. By the Laws, the ideas attributed to Socrates aren’t genuine.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">There has been some question about whether Socrates really existed or was only ever a creation of Plato. Just about everyone agrees that the Socrates in the later dialogues is a creation, but what about the earlier ones? The differences between the two figures is one reason to think that a real Socrates existed, There are also a few references made by other authors. If Socrates didn’t exist, however, that wouldn’t affect the ideas attributed to him.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>“The unexamined life is not worth living for man.”<br />
(Plato, Apology) </b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>“Well I am certainly wiser than this man. It is only too likely that neither of us has any knowledge to boast of; but he thinks that he knows something which he does not know, whereas I am quite conscious of my ignorance. At any rate it seems that I am wiser than he is to this small extent, that I do not think that I know what I do not know.”<br />
(Plato, Apology)</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Socrates didn’t specialize in any one field like metaphysics or political philosophy in the manner that modern philosophers do. Socrates explored a wide range of philosophical questions, but he generally focused on issues of most immediate need to humans like how to be virtuous or live a good life. If there is any one topic that occupied Socrates most, it would be ethics.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b></b></span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><br />
</b></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Socrates was well known for engaging people in public deputations over things like the nature of virtue. He would ask people to explain a concept, point out flaws that would force them to alter their answer, and continue like this until the person either came up with a solid explanation or admit that they really don’t understand the concept.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Socrates was charged with impiety and corrupting the youth, found guilty by a margin of 30 votes out of the 501 jurors, and sentenced to death. Socrates was an opponent of democracy in Athens and was closely connected with the Thirty Tyrants installed by Sparta after Athens lost the recent war. He was ordered to drink hemlock, a poison, and refused to let his friends bribe the guards so he could escape because he believed strongly in the principle of law — even bad laws.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Socrates’ influence among his contemporaries was a result of his interest in engaging people in discussions about all manner of important issues - often making them feel uncomfortable by showing that what they believed or thought they knew was not as justified as they had assumed. Although in the early dialogues he never came to any firm conclusions about what constituted true piety or friendship, he did reach a conclusion about a relationship between knowledge and action. </span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">According to Socrates, no one errs intentionally. This means that whenever we do something wrong - including something morally wrong - it is out of ignorance rather than evil. In his ethical perspective he added another crucial idea known as eudaemonism, according to which the good life is the happy life. </span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Socrates’ later influence was guaranteed by one of his students, Plato, who recorded many of Socrates’ dialogues with others. Socrates attracted many young men because of the quality of learning available, and many of them were members of Athens’ elite families. Eventually, his influence over the young was found by many in power to be too dangerous because he encouraged them to question tradition and authority.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-90993208763587558612011-02-04T00:18:00.001+06:002011-02-04T00:20:15.103+06:00Biography of Sir Isaac Newton<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyHZGTlnUNIyTRO3ewnsHgv8QD_IDdu6xQx0zD0EFSUS47KdhCeiPhD3FnYLeuJQ43Rh7GczS0a-5HYkANV_zZRamkMOphBuCjPYriCCz1SYgd9VdF4OHeKTYvWPZUvW0g9r3F0vQK4bvn/s1600/50124_i_newton_md.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyHZGTlnUNIyTRO3ewnsHgv8QD_IDdu6xQx0zD0EFSUS47KdhCeiPhD3FnYLeuJQ43Rh7GczS0a-5HYkANV_zZRamkMOphBuCjPYriCCz1SYgd9VdF4OHeKTYvWPZUvW0g9r3F0vQK4bvn/s200/50124_i_newton_md.gif" width="150" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)</b></span><br />
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<div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Isaac Newton's life can be divided into three quite distinct periods. The first is his boyhood days from 1643 up to his appointment to a chair in 1669. The second period from 1669 to 1687 was the highly productive period in which he was Lucasian professor at Cambridge. The third period (nearly as long as the other two combined) saw Newton as a highly paid government official in London with little further interest in mathematical research. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Isaac Newton was born in the manor house of Woolsthorpe, near Grantham in Lincolnshire. Although by the calendar in use at the time of his birth he was born on Christmas Day 1642, we give the date of 4 January 1643 in this biography which is the "corrected" Gregorian calendar date bringing it into line with our present calendar. (The Gregorian calendar was not adopted in England until 1752.) Isaac Newton came from a family of farmers but never knew his father, also named Isaac Newton, who died in October 1642, three months before his son was born. Although Isaac's father owned property and animals which made him quite a wealthy man, he was completely uneducated and could not sign his own name.</span><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Isaac's mother Hannah Ayscough remarried Barnabas Smith the minister of the church at North Witham, a nearby village, when Isaac was two years old. The young child was then left in the care of his grandmother Margery Ayscough at Woolsthorpe. Basically treated as an orphan, Isaac did not have a happy childhood. His grandfather James Ayscough was never mentioned by Isaac in later life and the fact that James left nothing to Isaac in his will, made when the boy was ten years old, suggests that there was no love lost between the two. There is no doubt that Isaac felt very bitter towards his mother and his step-father Barnabas Smith. When examining his sins at age nineteen, Isaac listed:- </span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Threatening my father and mother Smith to burn them and the house over them.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Upon the death of his stepfather in 1653, Newton lived in an extended family consisting of his mother, his grandmother, one half-brother, and two half-sisters. From shortly after this time Isaac began attending the Free Grammar School in Grantham. Although this was only five miles from his home, Isaac lodged with the Clark family at Grantham. However he seems to have shown little promise in academic work. His school reports described him as 'idle' and 'inattentive'. His mother, by now a lady of reasonable wealth and property, thought that her eldest son was the right person to manage her affairs and her estate. Isaac was taken away from school but soon showed that he had no talent, or interest, in managing an estate.</span> </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">An uncle, William Ayscough, decided that Isaac should prepare for entering university and, having persuaded his mother that this was the right thing to do, Isaac was allowed to return to the Free Grammar School in Grantham in 1660 to complete his school education. This time he lodged with Stokes, who was the headmaster of the school, and it would appear that, despite suggestions that he had previously shown no academic promise, Isaac must have convinced some of those around him that he had academic promise. Some evidence points to Stokes also persuading Isaac's mother to let him enter university, so it is likely that Isaac had shown more promise in his first spell at the school than the school reports suggest. Another piece of evidence comes from Isaac's list of sins referred to above. He lists one of his sins as:- </span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>... setting my heart on money, learning, and pleasure more than Thee ...</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">which tells us that Isaac must have had a passion for learning. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> We know nothing about what Isaac learnt in preparation for university, but Stokes was an able man and almost certainly gave Isaac private coaching and a good grounding. There is no evidence that he learnt any mathematics, but we cannot rule out Stokes introducing him to Euclid's <i>Elements</i> which he was well capable of teaching (although there is evidence mentioned below that Newton did not read Euclid before 1663). Anecdotes abound about a mechanical ability which Isaac displayed at the school and stories are told of his skill in making models of machines, in particular of clocks and windmills. However, when biographers seek information about famous people there is always a tendency for people to report what they think is expected of them, and these anecdotes may simply be made up later by those who felt that the most famous scientist in the world ought to have had these skills at school. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Newton entered his uncle's old College, Trinity College Cambridge, on 5 June 1661. He was older than most of his fellow students but, despite the fact that his mother was financially well off, he entered as a sizar. A sizar at Cambridge was a student who received an allowance toward college expenses in exchange for acting as a servant to other students. There is certainly some ambiguity in his position as a sizar, for he seems to have associated with "better class" students rather than other sizars. Westfall has suggested that Newton may have had Humphrey Babington, a distant relative who was a Fellow of Trinity, as his patron. This reasonable explanation would fit well with what is known and mean that his mother did not subject him unnecessarily to hardship as some of his biographers claim. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Newton's aim at Cambridge was a law degree. Instruction at Cambridge was dominated by the philosophy of Aristotle but some freedom of study was allowed in the third year of the course. Newton studied the philosophy of Descartes, Gassendi, Hobbes, and in particular Boyle. The mechanics of the Copernican astronomy of Galileo attracted him and he also studied Kepler's <i>Optics.</i> He recorded his thoughts in a book which he entitled <i>Quaestiones Quaedam Philosophicae</i> (Certain Philosophical Questions). It is a fascinating account of how Newton's ideas were already forming around 1664. He headed the text with a Latin statement meaning "Plato is my friend, Aristotle is my friend, but my best friend is truth" showing himself a free thinker from an early stage. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">How Newton was introduced to the most advanced mathematical texts of his day is slightly less clear. According to de Moivre, Newton's interest in mathematics began in the autumn of 1663 when he bought an astrology book at a fair in Cambridge and found that he could not understand the mathematics in it.Attempting to read a trigonometry book, he found that he lacked knowledge of geometry and so decided to read Barrow's edition of Euclids Elments.</span>The first few results were so easy that he almost gave up but he:- </span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>... changed his mind when he read that parallelograms upon the same base and between the same parallels are equal.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Returning to the beginning, Newton read the whole book with a new respect. He then turned to Oughtred's <i>Clavis Mathematica</i> and Descartes' <i>La Géométrie.</i> The new algebra and analytical geometry of Viète was read by Newton from Frans van Schooten's edition of Viète's collected works published in 1646. Other major works of mathematics which he studied around this time was the newly published major work by van Schooten <i>Geometria a Renato Des Cartes</i> which appeared in two volumes in 1659-1661. The book contained important appendices by three of van Schooten's disciples, Jan de Witt, Johan Hudde, and Hendrick van Heuraet. Newton also studied Wallis's <i>Algebra</i> and it appears that his first original mathematical work came from his study of this text. He read Wallis's method for finding a square of equal area to a parabola and a hyperbola which used indivisibles. Newton made notes on Wallis's treatment of series but also devised his own proofs of the theorems writing:- </span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Thus Wallis doth it, but it may be done thus ...</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">It would be easy to think that Newton's talent began to emerge on the arrival of Barrow to the Lucasian chair at Cambridge in 1663 when he became a Fellow at Trinity College. Certainly the date matches the beginnings of Newton's deep mathematical studies. However, it would appear that the 1663 date is merely a coincidence and that it was only some years later that Barrow recognised the mathematical genius among his students. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Despite some evidence that his progress had not been particularly good, Newton was elected a scholar on 28 April 1664 and received his bachelor's degree in April 1665. It would appear that his scientific genius had still not emerged, but it did so suddenly when the plague closed the University in the summer of 1665 and he had to return to Lincolnshire. There, in a period of less than two years, while Newton was still under 25 years old, he began revolutionary advances in mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">While Newton remained at home he laid the foundations for differential and integral calculus, several years before its independent discovery by Leibniz. The 'method of fluxions', as he termed it, was based on his crucial insight that the integration of a function is merely the inverse procedure to differentiating it. Taking differentiation as the basic operation, Newton produced simple analytical methods that unified many separate techniques previously developed to solve apparently unrelated problems such as finding areas, tangents, the lengths of curves and the maxima and minima of functions. Newton's <i>De Methodis Serierum et Fluxionum</i> was written in 1671 but Newton failed to get it published and it did not appear in print until John Colson produced an English translation in 1736. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;">When the University of Cambridge reopened after the plague in 1667, Newton put himself forward as a candidate for a fellowship. In October he was elected to a minor fellowship at Trinity College but, after being awarded his Master's Degree, he was elected to a major fellowship in July 1668 which allowed him to dine at the Fellows' Table. In July 1669 BarrowDe Analysi to Collins in London writing:-</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">tried to ensure that Newton's mathematical achievements became known to the world. He sent Newton's text </span></div><blockquote><div align="justify"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>[Newton] brought me the other day some papers, wherein he set down methods of calculating the dimensions of magnitudes like that of Mr Mercator concerning the hyperbola, but very general; as also of resolving equations; which I suppose will please you; and I shall send you them by the next.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Collins corresponded with all the leading mathematicians of the day so Barrow's action should have led to quick recognition. Collins showed Brouncker, the President of the Royal Society, Newton's results (with the author's permission) but after this Newton requested that his manuscript be returned. Collins could not give a detailed account but de Sluze and Gregory learnt something of Newton's work through Collins. Barrow resigned the Lucasian chair in 1669 to devote himself to divinity, recommending that Newton (still only 27 years old) be appointed in his place. Shortly after this Newton visited London and twice met with Collins but, as he wrote to Gregory:- </span></div><blockquote style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>... having no more acquaintance with him I did not think it becoming to urge him to communicate anything.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Newton's first work as Lucasian Professor was on optics and this was the topic of his first lecture course begun in January 1670. He had reached the conclusion during the two plague years that white light is not a simple entity. Every scientist since Aristotle had believed that white light was a basic single entity, but the chromatic aberration in a telescope lens convinced Newton otherwise. When he passed a thin beam of sunlight through a glass prism Newton noted the spectrum of colours that was formed. </span> </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He argued that white light is really a mixture of many different types of rays which are refracted at slightly different angles, and that each different type of ray produces a different spectral colour. Newton was led by this reasoning to the erroneous conclusion that telescopes using refracting lenses would always suffer chromatic aberration. He therefore proposed and constructed a reflecting telescope. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">In 1672 Newton was elected a fellow of the Royal Society after donating a reflecting telescope. Also in 1672 Newton published his first scientific paper on light and colour in the </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.</i> The paper was generally well received but <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Hooke and Huygens objected to Newton's attempt to prove, by experiment alone, that light consists of the motion of small particles rather than waves. The reception that his publication received did nothing to improve Newton's attitude to making his results known to the world. He was always pulled in two directions, there was something in his nature which wanted fame and recognition yet another side of him feared criticism and the easiest way to avoid being criticised was to publish nothing. Certainly one could say that his reaction to criticism was irrational, and certainly his aim to humiliate Hooke in public because of his opinions was abnormal. However, perhaps because of Newton's already high reputation, his corpuscular theory reigned until the wave theory was revived in the 19th century.</span> </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Newton's relations with Hooke deteriorated further when, in 1675, Hooke claimed that Newton had stolen some of his optical results. Although the two men made their peace with an exchange of polite letters, Newton turned in on himself and away from the </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Royal Society </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Hooke as one of its leaders. He delayed the publication of a full account of his optical researches until after the death of Hooke in 1703. Newton's </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Opticks</i></span> </div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>which he associated with appeared in 1704. It dealt with the theory of light and colour and with</b></span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><br />
<ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: left;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>investigations of the colours of thin sheets </b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>'Newton's rings' and </b></span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>diffraction of light. </b></span></li>
</ul><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">To explain some of his observations he had to use a wave theory of light in conjunction with his corpuscular theory. </span><br />
<div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Another argument, this time with the English Jesuits in Liège over his theory of colour, led to a violent exchange of letters, then in 1678 Newton appears to have suffered a nervous breakdown. His mother died in the following year and he withdrew further into his shell, mixing as little as possible with people for a number of years. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Newton's greatest achievement was his work in physics and celestial mechanics, which culminated in the theory of universal gravitation. By 1666 Newton had early versions of his three laws of motion. He had also discovered the law giving the centrifugal force on a body moving uniformly in a circular path. However he did not have a correct understanding of the mechanics of circular motion. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Newton's novel idea of 1666 was to imagine that the Earth's gravity influenced the Moon, counter- balancing its centrifugal force. From his law of centrifugal force and Kepler's third law of planetary motion, Newton deduced the inverse-square law. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1679 Newton corresponded with Hooke who had written to Newton claiming:- </span></div><blockquote class="" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall ...</span></b> </div></blockquote><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">M Nauenberg writes an account of the next events:- </span></span></div><blockquote class="" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">After his 1679 correspondence with Hooke, Newton, by his own account, found a proof that Kepler's areal law was a consequence of centripetal forces, and he also showed that if the orbital curve is an ellipse under the action of central forces then the radial dependence of the force is inverse square with the distance from the centre.</span></b> </div></blockquote><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">This discovery showed the physical significance of Kepler's second law. </span></span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> In 1684 Halley, tired of Hooke's boasting [M Nauenberg]:- </span></div><blockquote class="" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>... asked Newton what orbit a body followed under an inverse square force, and Newton replied immediately that it would be an ellipse. However in 'De Motu..' he only gave a proof of the converse theorem that if the orbit is an ellipse the force is inverse square. The proof that inverse square forces imply conic section orbits is sketched in Cor. 1 to Prop. 13 in Book 1 of the second and third editions of the 'Principia', but not in the first edition.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Halley persuaded Newton to write a full treatment of his new physics and its application to astronomy. Over a year later (1687) Newton published the <i>Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica</i> or <i>Principia</i> as it is always known. </span></div><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> The </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Principia</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> is recognised as the greatest scientific book ever written. Newton analysed the motion of bodies in resisting and non-resisting media under the action of centripetal forces. The results were applied to orbiting bodies, projectiles, pendulums, and free-fall near the Earth. He further demonstrated that the planets were attracted toward the Sun by a force varying as the inverse square of the distance and generalised that all heavenly bodies mutually attract one another.</span> </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Further generalisation led Newton to the law of universal gravitation:- </span></div><blockquote class="" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">... all matter attracts all other matter with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.</span></b> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Newton explained a wide range of previously unrelated phenomena: the eccentric orbits of comets, the tides and their variations, the precession of the Earth's axis, and motion of the Moon as perturbed by the gravity of the Sun. This work made Newton an international leader in scientific research. The Continental scientists certainly did not accept the idea of action at a distance and continued to believe in Descartes' vortex theory where forces work through contact. However this did not stop the universal admiration for Newton's technical expertise. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">James II became king of Great Britain on 6 February 1685. He had become a convert to the Roman Catholic church in 1669 but when he came to the throne he had strong support from Anglicans as well as Catholics. However rebellions arose, which James put down but he began to distrust Protestants and began to appoint Roman Catholic officers to the army. He then went further, appointing only Catholics as judges and officers of state. Whenever a position at Oxford or Cambridge became vacant, the king appointed a Roman Catholic to fill it. Newton was a staunch Protestant and strongly opposed to what he saw as an attack on the University of Cambridge. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">When the King tried to insist that a Benedictine monk be given a degree without taking any examinations or swearing the required oaths, Newton wrote to the Vice-Chancellor:- </span></div><blockquote class="" style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><div align="justify"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Be courageous and steady to the Laws and you cannot fail.</b></span> </div></blockquote><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Vice-Chancellor took Newton's advice and was dismissed from his post. However Newton continued to argue the case strongly preparing documents to be used by the University in its defence. However William of Orange had been invited by many leaders to bring an army to England to defeat James. William landed in November 1688 and James, finding that Protestants had left his army, fled to France. The University of Cambridge elected Newton, now famous for his strong defence of the university, as one of their two members to the Convention Parliament on 15 January 1689. This Parliament declared that James had abdicated and in February 1689 offered the crown to William and Mary. Newton was at the height of his standing - seen as a leader of the university and one of the most eminent mathematicians in the world. However, his election to Parliament may have been the event which let him see that there was a life in London which might appeal to him more than the academic world in Cambridge. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After suffering a second nervous breakdown in 1693, Newton retired from research. The reasons for this breakdown have been discussed by his biographers and many theories have been proposed: chemical poisoning as a result of his alchemy experiments; frustration with his researches; the ending of a personal friendship with Fatio de Duillier, a Swiss-born mathematician resident in London; and problems resulting from his religious beliefs. Newton himself blamed lack of sleep but this was almost certainly a symptom of the illness rather than the cause of it. There seems little reason to suppose that the illness was anything other than depression, a mental illness he must have suffered from throughout most of his life, perhaps made worse by some of the events we have just listed. </span></div><div align="justify"><br />
</div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Newton decided to leave Cambridge to take up a government position in London becoming Warden of the Royal Mint in 1696 and Master in 1699. However, he did not resign his positions at Cambridge until 1701. As Master of the Mint, adding the income from his estates, we see that Newton became a very rich man. For many people a position such as Master of the Mint would have been treated as simply a reward for their scientific achievements. Newton did not treat it as such and he made a strong contribution to the work of the Mint. He led it through the difficult period of recoinage and he was particularly active in measures to prevent counterfeiting of the coinage. </span></div><div align="justify" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> In 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"> and was re-elected each year until his death. He was knighted in 1705 by Queen Anne, the first scientist to be so honoured for his work. However the last portion of his life was not an easy one, dominated in many ways with the controversy with Leibniz over which of them had invented the calculus. </span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Given the rage that Newton had shown throughout his life when criticised, it is not surprising that he flew into an irrational temper directed against Leibniz. We have given details of this controversy in Leibniz's biography and refer the reader to that article for details. Perhaps all that is worth relating here is how Newton used his position as President of the </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">Royal Society</span><span style="font-size: x-small;">. In this capacity he appointed an "impartial" committee to decide whether he or Leibniz was the inventor of the calculus. He wrote the official report of the committee (although of course it did not appear under his name) which was published by the </span><span style="font-size: x-small;">Royal Society</span><span style="font-size: x-small;">, and he then wrote a review (again anonymously) which appeared in the <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.</i></span> </div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-73763276727628051162011-02-03T23:33:00.000+06:002011-02-03T23:33:11.452+06:00Biography of Imam Abu Hanifa (RA)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEge9pjCerYrxbzV1MhF-8TaMvbNbiPT8tUwZYwe-6uKr3RrHczoW_3nCxlVSvdHug1W5CvLDtrnKE8bOsKnw0Gw_cqlmikC25EhEcnmQR9t-m6mju6kK9WaijrEsHaVq6-KbILNd_RluVTW/s1600/imam_abu_hanifa_name.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="57" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEge9pjCerYrxbzV1MhF-8TaMvbNbiPT8tUwZYwe-6uKr3RrHczoW_3nCxlVSvdHug1W5CvLDtrnKE8bOsKnw0Gw_cqlmikC25EhEcnmQR9t-m6mju6kK9WaijrEsHaVq6-KbILNd_RluVTW/s200/imam_abu_hanifa_name.gif" width="200" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Imam Abu Hanifa (RA) (80-150 A.H.)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">T</span><span style="font-size: x-small;">he writers of the <i>Tadhkirahs</i> (biographical memoirs) in which Imam Abu Hanifah figures, have allowed their admiration for him to make them portray his character and personal habits with so much palpable exaggeration that after reading their accounts, one finds it hard to visualize what he was really like. Here are few of the incredible things they mention : For forty years he said his morning prayers with the <i>wudu </i>(ritual ablution) that he had performed for his<i> 'isha</i> prayer (the night prayer). For thirty years on end he fasted from day to day. He completed seven thousand readings of the Qur'an at the place where he died. There having been found in the canal at Kufah a piece of meat about which it could not be ascertained whether or not it was part of a lawfully slaughtered animal, he abstained from eating fish for a long time for fear that the fish, which was long-lived, may have eaten of that piece of meat. For similar reasons he gave up eating goat's meat. His personal expenditure was equivalent to ten annas a month only. There are many other fantastic stories of the same kind current about him. The surprising thing is that our historians regard impossible things of this kind as real evidence of the Imam's spiritual attainments although these have not been historically established and, in any case, are no proof of spiritual or moral excellence.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">I must admit that the facts I have accepted about the Imam's personality and way of life are also derived from these very biographical memoirs; but then every incident or fact mentioned in a book has to be considered on its own merits. In regard to ordinary incidents the ordinary kind of evidence is sufficient; but so far as extraordinary things of the kind that I am speaking of are concerned, they need some authority absolutely beyond doubt; in fact, they need to conform to something more than the conditions to be fulfilled by a <i>Hadith</i> before it can be accepted as <i>sahih</i> (authentic), <i>marfu'</i> (connected with a saying or an act of the Prophet) and <i>muttasil </i>(uninterruptedly continuous) -- and must also stand examination in accordance with the principles of scrutiny (<i>dirayat</i>). When one thinks of the Imam's sagacity and keen intellect, of which we have first-hand proof, one cannot believe his doing things which even a rabid anchorite would not do.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">An accurate, though sketchy, portrait of the Imam's personality is to be found in the description that Qadi Abu Yusuf gave of him to Harun al-Rashid at the latter's request. "As far as I know," said the Qadi, "Abu Hanifah was extremely pious, avoided forbidden things, remained silent and absorbed in his thoughts most of the time, and answered a question only if he knew the answer. He was very generous and self-respecting, never asked a favour of anybody, shunned the company of the worldly-minded and held worldly power and position in contempt. He avoided slander and only talked well of people. He was a man of profound learning and was as generous with his knowledge as with his money." On hearing this account, Harun al-Rashid observed, "You have described a great and good man." To superficial observers, the qualities described by Qadi Abu Yusuf may not appear to be of much significance, but connoisseurs of the spiritual character know that, easy as this way of life may look, it is very difficult to follow and as praiseworthy as it is difficult.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Along with beauty of character God had endowed the Imam with good looks. He had a medium height, handsome features and a well-proportioned figure. His way of speaking was pleasing and his voice loud and clear. When he spoke on a problem he did so with such eloquence and clarity that, no matter how complicated it was, it became simplified.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He was a man of good taste and liked to dress well. Sometimes he even put on ermine <i>jubbahs </i>Abu Muti' Balkhi, one of his pupils, mentions that on one occasion he found him dressed in a shirt and mantle which could not have cost less than four hundred dirhams. One day he borrowed the mantle of Nasr b. Muhammad, who called on him when he was getting ready to go out. On coming back, he complained that he had felt ashamed of the mantle because it was dirty. Nasr had bought it for five dinars and was proud of it. He was, therefore, surprised at the Imam's complaint, but he understood the reason for it when, a few days later, he found the Imam wearing a mantle which could not have cost less than thirty dinars.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Caliph Mansur had invented a special straw cap covered with black cloth for his courtiers to wear. The cap was so very tall that it provoked the poet Abu Dalamah into saying humorously, "We were expecting some enhancement from the Caliph. So he has enhanced the length of caps."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Although the Imam kept away from the Caliph's court as much as he could, yet he did not mind occasionally wearing the new courtiers' cap. In fact, it raised eyebrows in learned circles that he sometimes had seven or eight of the caps in his wardrobe, although for the <i>beau monde</i> this was nothing to marvel at.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In some other matters too, the Imam's style of living was quite different from that of the common run of <i>'ulama'. </i>Most of the contemporary <i>'ulama' </i>were stipendiaries of the Caliph or of rich courtiers, and did not consider this as a thing to be apologetic about. Somebody having taunted Qadi Ibn 'Abd al-Barr with being a stipendiary of wealthy people, he replied by citing the example of a number of Companions, <i>Tabi'in </i>and <i>Tab' Tabi'in</i> who had lived on the generosity of the rich. However, I do not consider this as perhaps some modern-minded people do, to be tantamount to idleness or parasitism. Teaching was not yet a salaried profession. The <i>'ulama'</i> used to teach honorarily either at their own homes or in mosques -- a system which has not yet been surpassed in extensiveness and usefulness. What these honorary teachers received from their rich patrons by way of regular stipends or occasional gifts could well be regarded as a salary. All the same, it cannot be denied that it was this practice which in course of time grew into the system of professional and hereditary religious preceptors<i> (Pirs),</i> parasites living by exploiting people's credulity, which has rendered a large part of the Muslim population idle. </span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There is no doubt that Abu Hanifah was strongly opposed to the practice, and he was right in the light of its subsequent development. One great advantage that accrued to him from his being attached to nobody was that he could express his true opinions without fear or favour. However independent-minded and frank a man may be, he cannot help being influenced by those from whom he accepts favours. Abu Hanifah never accepted a favour from anybody throughout his life, and so he retained his independence. He sometimes used to mention this fact too.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibn Hubairah, governor of Kufah and a man of renown, once said to Abu Hanifah, "I would consider it a favour if you could come and see me occasionally." "What is the point in my visiting you?" replied the Imam. "If you treated me kindly, I might fall into your trap. If, on the other hand, you received me rudely, I would consider it a disgrace. I do not need anything from your treasury, and whatever I have nobody can snatch away from me." A similar conversation is said to have taken place between him and 'Isa b. Musa.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">A dispute having arisen between the Caliph Mansur and his wife Harrah over an accusation made by the latter that the former was not a just ruler, Abu Hanifah was called in to arbitrate between them. The queen sat behind a veil in order to hear the Imam's verdict with her own ears. Mansur began by asking how many wives a Muslim was permitted to have at a time according to the <i>Shari'ah</i>. The Imam replied, "Four." "Do you hear?" shouted Mansur to the queen. "Yes, I've heard it," replied the queen. At that point the Imam addressed himself to the Caliph and added, "But this permission is for a man who is capable of doing justice. No other man can have more than one wife. God Himself says: 'If you doubt your ability to do justice (between your wives), have only one wife.' " Mansur remained silent. A little while after the Imam returned home, a servant came to him with a gift of fifty thousand dinars. "The queen," he said, "sends you her respectful salutations and says that she is grateful to you for your truthful verdict." The Imam returned the money with a message for the queen that he had expressed the opinion he had expressed not in the expectation of a reward but because it was his duty as an arbitrator to express it.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam's business was on a large scale. He traded in goods worth millions, had his agents in a number of cities and had dealings with many big merchants. With such a vast establishment under him he personally took care to see that no illicitly gained money came into his coffers, even though this subjected him to occasional losses. Once he sent some lengths of silk to Hafs b. 'Abd al-Rahman for sale with instructions to point out to prospective customers certain defects in some of the lengths. Hafs forgot the instruction and sold off the defective lengths without telling the customers anything about their defects. When the Imam learned of this, he was very sorry and gave away in charity the entire price of the lengths, which amounted to thirty thousand dirhams.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day a woman came to him with a length of silk which she wanted him to sell for her and quoted a hundred rupees for it. On the Imam expressing surprise at that figure, she raised it to two hundred rupees. But the Imam told her that it was worth not less than five hundred rupees. "Are you making fun of me?" said the woman. The Imam took out five hundred rupees, gave them to her and kept the cloth. This kind of scrupulous honesty, far from harming his business, made it flourish.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His object in carrying on business and making money was to be able to help others. We had fixed stipends for all his needy friends and acquaintances and had reserved a part of his profits for distribution among scholars and<i> muhaddithin</i> annually. Whenever he bought anything for his family, he would buy the same thing for the scholars and <i>muhaddithin</i> of his acquaintance. If anybody came to call on him, he would tactfully find out about his economic condition and, if he was in want, help him. He used to provide those of his pupils who were poor with money for their household expenses, so that they could attend to their studies undistracted by domestic worries. Many people who were too poor to meet the expenses of their education were educated with his help and attained to high positions. One of these was Qadi Abu Yusuf, of whom more later.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day a man who looked poor came to see Abu Hanifah. When his visitors were taking leave of him, the Imam asked the man to stay on. After the others had gone, he pointed to his prayer mat and asked the man to lift it. On doing so the man found a purse containing a thousand dirhams under the mat. Understanding that the Imam was offering the money to him, the man explained that he was well-to-do and did not need it. "Then you should not dress in such a way," said the Imam, "that people mistake you for a poor man."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On one occasion while on his way to see a sick acquaintance, the Imam saw at a distance a man who owed him ten thousand dirhams. The man tried to avoid him, but he accosted the man and, stopping him, asked why he had tried to avoid him. The man replied that he was ashamed to face him because he had not been able to repay his loan. Impressed with the man's confession of shame, the Imam said, "Well if you are unable to repay the loan, you need not do so."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On one of his pilgrimages he was accompanied part of the way by 'Abd-Allah Sahmi. At one of the halting stations a bedouin caught hold of 'Abd-Allah and, bringing him to the Imam, complained that 'Abd-Allah was not repaying a loan he had given him. 'Abd-Allah denied the claim. So the Imam asked the bedouin the amount of loan involved. The bedouin informed him that it was forty dirhams. "Things have come to such a pass," exclaimed the Imam, "that people fight over a paltry sum like forty dirhams." Saying this, he paid forty dirhams to the bedouin out of his own pocket.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ibrahim b.'Utbah owed somebody four thousand dirhams and being unable to repay the money stopped meeting people out of shame. A friend of his started collecting subscriptions to </span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">help him discharge the loan and approached the Imam also. The Imam asked the amount of the loan. When he was told that it was four thousand dirhams, he said, "Why bother so many people for such a small amount?" Saying this, he gave Ibrahim's friend the entire money.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There are many other stories in the history books about the Imam's generosity, which for want of space I refrain from relating.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Despite his wealth and high position in society, the Imam was extremely gentle and polite. One day, while he was sitting in the Hanif mosque, surrounded by his pupils and admirers, a stranger posed a question, which he answered. The man remarked that Hasan Basri had given a ruling contrary to his. "Then Hasan Basri made a mistake," replied the Imam. One of those present, who was a disciple of Hasan Basri, was so enraged at this remark that he shouted, "You son of a whore, you dare to say that Hasan Basri can be wrong?" This caused an uproar in the assembly, and some people wanted to catch hold of the man and punish him. The Imam, however, intervened and prevented them from doing so. This struck the whole assembly dumb. However, when order had been restored, the Imam turned to the man who had abused him and very calmly said, "Yes, Hasan did make a mistake. The correct Tradition on the subject is the one narrated by 'Abd-Allah b. Mas'ud."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Yazid b. Kumait relates that one day, when he was present, a man began to speak rudely to the Imam. The Imam went on answering his questions gently and calmly; but the man became more and more impolite, so much so that he called the Imam a <i>Zindiq</i>. On hearing that word, the Imam said, "May God forgive you! He knows that you have used a wrong word about me." The Imam often used to say that he had never cursed anybody, never taken revenge from anybody, never done harm to a Muslim or a <i>dhimmi, </i>never deceived anybody and never broken a promise.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">For some time relations were strained between Abu Hanifah and Sufyan Thauri. One day a man reported to Abu Hanifah that Sufyan was speaking ill of him. "May God forgive both of us," said the Imam; "Sufyan is so great a scholar that if he had died even when Ibrahim Nakha'i was alive, the Muslims would have mourned him."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day, while he was taking a class, a man who bore him some grudge started saying improper things about him. He paid no attention to the man and carried on with his teaching. He even told his pupils to pay no heed to him. When, after the class was over, he went out, the man followed him and continued abusing him. When both of them reached the Imam's house, the latter stopped and, turning to the man, said: "Brother, we are now at the doorstep of my house. If you have anything more to say, say it because I shall presently go in and you may not get another opportunity."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One another occasion, while the Imam was lecturing, a young man who was not a regular pupil of his, put a question to him and on hearing the answer said, 'Abu Hanifah, your answer is wrong. "One of the Imam's pupils, Abu'l-Khattab Jurjani, angered by this, shouted to the audience: "All of you are shameless people. Here is a mere youngster speaking rudely to the Imam, and nobody seems to be bothered." The Imam, turning to Abu'l-Khattab, said, "I am here to give people an opportunity of pointing out my mistakes freely, and I must listen to them patiently."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There was a merry cobbler living in the Imam's neighbourhood. After his day's work he used to come home with meat and wine and entertain his friends at night. They would all eat <i>kababs</i>, which he himself roasted, and drink his wine with him. Happily drunk, he would now and again sing a couplet which said: "People have let me go to waste me, who would have been useful to them in battle and siege." The Imam, who used to spend the latter part of the night in prayer, would hear his singing, but never objected to it out of neighbourly consideration and his habitual kindliness. One night the prefect of police, who happened to pass that way, arrested the cobbler and locked him up. On the following morning the Imam mentioned to his friends that he had not heard his neighbour's singing during the previous night. They informed him of what had happened. The Imam at once ordered his mount, put on his <i>darbar </i>dress and proceeded to the governor's house. The governor then was 'Isa b. Musa, a cousin of the Caliph Mansur and distinguished among the Abbasids for sagacity and bravery. On being informed that Imam Abu Hanifah was coming to see him, he sent a number of his courtiers to receive him, with orders that he should be escorted on horseback right up to the courtyard of the governor's house. As soon as the Imam's horse approached, he stood up and, after the Imam had dismounted, took him to a seat with all respect. Then he said, "Why have you taken the trouble of coming here? You could have sent for me." The Imam said, "What brings me here is that a cobbler who is my neighbour has been arrested by the prefect of police and I want him released." 'Isa immediately sent orders for the cobbler's release. The cobbler was brought to the governor's house and set free, and he accompanied the Imam on his way home. "Well, my friend," said the Imam to him, "have I allowed you to go to waste?" This was with reference to the couplet the cobbler used to sing. The cobbler replied, "No, sir, you have proved a good neighbour." From that day he changed his way of life. Giving up his drunken merrymaking, he joined the Imam's classes and in due course attained to such scholarship that he came to be known as a <i>faqih.</i></span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam lost his father before he had come of age, but his mother lived for a long time, and the Imam looked after her with great affection and regard. She was of a superstitious nature and, like most women, had much faith in religious preachers and storytellers, especially in 'Amr b. Dharr, a well-known preacher of Kufah. Whenever she had a religious question to be answered, she would tell the Imam to go to 'Amr and get the answer from him, the Imam would faithfully carry out her behest, much to the embarrassment of 'Amr, who would exclaim, " How dare I open my mouth before you?" The Imam would reply, "Such is my mother's command." It sometimes happened that 'Amr did not know the answer to a question. He would then request the Imam to tell him the answer so that he could repeat it in front of him -- in which case, it would become his answer. Now and again the old lady would insist on questioning 'Amr personally and would go to him mounted on a mule, with Abu Hanifah walking by her side. On arriving at 'Amr's house she would put her question to him personally and hear the answer with her own ears; only then would she be satisfied. Once she posed a problem to the Imam and asked him for the answer, but when he gave it, she turned it down, saying, "No, you are no authority. I shall accept your answer only if Zurqah confirms it." (Zurqah was a preacher.) The Imam took her to Zurqah and explained the problem to him. "Why don't you answer it yourself?" said Zurqah. "You know far more than I do." The Imam then told him what answer he had given. Zurqah said that the answer was correct. That satisfied the old lady and she returned home. When Ibn Hubairah having sent for Imam Abu Hanifah, asked him to accept the post of<i> MirMunshi</i> and on the latter's refusal ordered him to be whipped daily until he relented, the Imam's mother was still living. Hearing of what was happening, she was greatly grieved Whenever the Imam recalled this episode in later life, he would say: "It was not so my pain as the thought of the grief it was causing my mother that I found hard to hear.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam was very tender-hearted and was greatly disturbed by other people's pain and sorrow. One day, while he was teaching in a mosque, somebody came with the news that a certain man had fallen from the roof of his house. He cried out aloud, left the class, ran barefoot to the man's house and attended to him. Until the man had fully recovered, the Imam visited him every morning. But, distressed as he was by other people's sufferings, he bore his own with an equanimity which astonished people. Through all the persecution to which he was subjected by the Caliph and his officers he never wavered for a moment. Patience and steadfastness were inborn in him.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day, while he was lecturing in the <i>Jami</i>' mosque, surrounded by students and devotees, a snake fell into his lap from the ceiling. Everybody except him ran out of the mosque. As for him, he kept sitting calmly as if nothing had happened. A similar story is told of Imam Malik and forms one of the famous incidents of his life.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Abu Hanifah was a man of few words and never took part in idle talk. In his classroom he would sit quietly, letting his pupils freely debate among themselves, and would speak only when the discussion had become long and drawn-out without any conclusion being reached. He would then give his decision, which would satisfy all present.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He always avoided speaking ill of people behind their backs and would often thank God for saving his tongue from being contaminated with this evil. One day a man said to him: "Sir, people go about saying so many bad things about you, but one has never heard an ill word from your lips." The Imam observed: "This is God's grace. He grants it to whomever He likes." On somebody telling Sufyan Thauri that be had never heard Abu Hanifah slander anybody, Sufyan said: "Abu Hanifah is not such a fool as to ruin all his good deeds."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">He thought it wrong to swear and always abstained from it. In order to enforce this upon himself he had taken a vow that every time he committed the error he would pay a voluntary penalty of one dirham. Once he did commit it inadvertently. Thereupon he raised the penalty to one dinar.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His piety and devotion knew no bounds. Praying was a delight to him and he used to engage in it with great gusto and sincerity, and he was famous for this. Dhahabi writes: "Accounts of his piety and devotion have reached a degree of<i> tawatur</i> (i.e. an unbroken chain of uncontradicted narrations)." While saying his prayers or reading the Qur'an, he would be so overcome with feeling that he would start weeping and go on doing so for hours. Ibrahim Basri relates that one morning while he was saying his prayers together with the Imam, the latter recited the <i>ayat</i>: "I do not think that God is forgetful of the conduct of the iniquitous" and in reciting it wept so much that his whole body shook with sobs. Za'idah relates that having an important question to consult the Imam about he joined the <i>'isha' </i>prayers with him and waited for him to finish his <i>nafls</i>. But the Imam, when in reciting from the Qur'an he reached the <i>ayat</i>: "<i>Waqana 'adhab al-samum</i>" (Save us from the torture of Hell's hot wind), went on repeating it until the morning. On another occasion he spent the whole night repeating the<i> ayat: "</i>Judgment Day is the sinners' promised hour and it is a difficult and unpleasant hour," and weeping while he repeated it.</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Yazid b. Kumait, a contemporary of the Imam and famous for his piety, relates that he joined the Imam in an<i> 'isha' </i>prayer during which the Imam leading the prayers recited the <i>ayat</i> '<i>idhazulzilat </i>." After the other people had departed, he found the Inam still sitting and heaving deep sighs. Yazid did not want to disturb the Imam, so he also went away, leaving the Imam sitting. When he went to the mosque on the following morning, he found the Imam sitting, looking very sad, holding his beard in his hands and saying tearfully, 'O Thou Who wilt reward even the smallest virtue and punish even the smallest sin, save Thy slave Nu'man from Hell-fire."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day while walking in the street, the Imam inadvertently stepped on a small boy's foot. The boy cried,'You don't seem to fear God." On hearing these words the Imam fainted. Mus'ir b. Kudam, who was with him, stopped him from falling and attended to him. As soon as he came to, Mus'ir said, "Why were you so perturbed by a small boy's casual remark?" The Imam replied: "Who knows this was not an admonition from the Unknown!"</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day when the Imam arrived at his shop, his servant put out some lengths of cloth and by way of a good augury said, "May God grant us Paradise!" The Imam started weeping and wept so much that his whole mantle became wet. Then he told the servant to close shop and went out, covering his face with his handkerchief. When be came to the shop on the following day, he said to the servant, "Who are we to wish for Paradise? It will be enough if God spares us His wrath." 'Umar Faruq used to say similarly, "If on Judgment Day I am neither punished nor rewarded, I shall be quite happy."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">One day, when he was explaining a point, one of the men present said, "You should always have the fear of God in your heart when you give a <i>fatwa.</i>" The Imam was so deeply affected by this remark that he went pale. Turning to the man, he said, "May God reward you for your good deeds, brother! If I were not sure that God will punish me for deliberately withholding the benefit of my knowledge from others, I would never give a <i>fatwa</i>." Faced with a question to which he did not know the answer, he used to get disturbed and ask himself whether he had committed some sin, of which this was the punishment. He would then perform his ablution, say his prayers and beg God's forgiveness. Somebody having reported this to Fudail b. 'Iyad, a famous Sufi, he wept and said "Abu Hanifah did not have many sins to repent for. That was why he thought thus. But those who are drowned in sin have innumerable calamities sent down upon them and yet do not realise that these are warnings from God."</span> </div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam's daily routine was as follows. After the morning prayer be would take his class in the mosque and then reply to references for <i>fatwas</i>, which came from near and far. That was followed by a session for <i>Fiqh </i>compilation, in which his leading disciples took part. Decisions reached unanimously were recorded. After saying his <i>zuhr </i>prayer, the Imam would go home and, if it was summer, have a siesta. The<i> 'asr</i> prayer was followed by another session of teaching, after which the Imam would go round the city meeting friends, visiting the sick, condoling the bereaved and helping the poor. After the <i>maghrib </i>prayer there was a third teaching session, which continued till the <i>'isha' </i>prayer. Having said his <i>'isha</i>' prayer, the Imam would start his private devotions, often continuing them throughout the night. During winter, he often slept in the mosque until the <i>'isha'</i> prayer, after which he would spend the whole night in performing the <i>tahajjud</i> prayer, reciting chosen passages from the Qur'an and repeating devotional formulas. Sometimes he performed these in his shop.</span> </div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-46563156797780181752011-02-03T21:24:00.001+06:002011-02-03T21:25:36.170+06:00Biography of Imam Bukhari (RA)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkYjniWSDFyCf4z1_aRkmLwoalRz5qCnCW_tsVDiKm88A-BlPovQo378W8rz39CdDj3BaLoPhSDndRGKfTPX4wfwtEaFOfElIXxYpT3tM8YqS0E57eGoJz8e7yh9V5WyzI5AyLC4jiZ6Z4/s1600/bukhariarabic.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkYjniWSDFyCf4z1_aRkmLwoalRz5qCnCW_tsVDiKm88A-BlPovQo378W8rz39CdDj3BaLoPhSDndRGKfTPX4wfwtEaFOfElIXxYpT3tM8YqS0E57eGoJz8e7yh9V5WyzI5AyLC4jiZ6Z4/s200/bukhariarabic.jpg" width="143" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Imam Bukhari (RA) (810-870)</b></span><br />
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<div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">“The most authentic book after the Holy Qur’an.” This is the conclusion that every learned religious Scholar came to. No matter how great these Scholars were, they were forced to unanimously agree that ‘Sahih Al-Bukhari’ is the most authentic work in Hadith literature ever compiled.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">We seem to have heard a lot about the magnificence of this compilation, but how much do we really know about the person who actually compiled this book? How much do we know about the man who had spent endless years traveling to many lands in search of people who had picked up the gems that had fallen from the lips of the Noble Messenger of Allah (sallallahu alaihi wasallam) so that he may gather these precious gems and present them to the world in the form of ‘Sahih Al-Bukhari.’</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">I feel it necessary to express my indebted honour to have the opportunity to make an attempt of presenting a brief outlook on the life of this celebrated personality.</span></div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His name, ‘Abu Abdillah Muhammad Ibn Ismail Ibn Ibrahim Ibn Al-Mughirah Ibn Bardizbah Al-Bukhari.’ He was born on 13 Shawwal 194 AH / 810 CE after the Jumuah Salaah in Bukhara in the territory of Khurasan (West Turkistan).</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Ismail, the father of Imam Bukhari, died during the Imam’s childhood leaving him along with a brother and sister in the care of his mother, where he was nourished with love and care.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: x-small;">Historians relate a remarkable incident that occurred during the Imam’s childhood. He had lost the use of both his eyes. Because of the endless prayers of his mother and the nights spent weeping, the Imam’s sight was miraculously restored. The Imam’s mother was informed by means of a dream in which the Prophet Ibrahim (alaihissalam) had appeared and said:</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">“Because of your bountiful and sacred prayers, Allah has returned the eyesight of your son.”</span></b> </div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Imam Bukhari began to learn traditions (hadith) by heart at the age of ten. His intelligence was already showing at that age, for he is credited with having been able at an early age to correct his teachers.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">It was at the age of sixteen, after having memorized the compilations of both Imam Waki and Abdullah Ibn Mubarak, that he made the pilgrimage to Makkah accompanying his mother and elder brother. Upon completing the pilgrimage, the Imam decided to remain in Makkah. He would spend the next six years in Hijaz (Makkah and Madinah) in the pursuit of Hadith (traditions). He traveled widely in search of traditions, visiting the main centers of knowledge, namely Basra, Kufa, Baghdad, Egypt and Syria. Iraq was the place where Imam Bukhari would occasionally return (Kufa and Basra were both historical ‘powerhouses’ of knowledge).</span></div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There are a great number of teachers from whom Imam Bukhari gained his knowledge. It is reported that the Imam has heard traditions from 1080 different people, all of whom were Scholars.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Scholars who taught the Imam were the likes of Muhammad Ibn Salam and Muhammad Ibn Yusuf Baikandi, Abdullah Ibn Muhammad Musnadi, Ibrahim Ibn Ash’ath and even Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal. However, he had mostly benefited from Ishaaq Ibn Rahway and Ali Ibn Madeeni.</span> </div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Many a story has been told regarding the Imam’s remarkable memory. Many considered his memory to be inhuman! The Imam was able to repeat a hadith immediately after it was recited to him.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: x-small;">During his student years, whilst visiting Baghdad, he had memorized 15,000 traditions in sixteen days. There is another spectacular incident that also took place in Baghdad when the Imam had taken up temporary residence there. People had heard about the Imam’s extraordinary memory. They decided to test him to see if the Imam was worthy of the attributes that were being issued to him. One hundred different ahaadeeth were chosen that had their testimonials and text altered. These altered ahaadeeth were to be recited to Imam Bukhari by ten people. By now, a crowd had gathered to witness the outcome of this deliberate test. One by one, each altered tradition was recited. The Imam remarked at the end of each recital:</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: x-small;">“Not of my knowledge.”</span></b> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After all the traditions had been presented, the Imam demonstrated the power of his memory by correcting the testimonial and text of each tradition in order.</span></div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Imam Bukhari had memorized over 200,000 traditions and written over 300,000. Unfortunately, some of these traditions were not genuinely authentic and unreliable, for he was born at a time when traditions of the Holy Prophet (sallallahu alaihi wasallam) were being forged and distorted either to please kings and rulers or to corrupt the religion of Islam.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">It was because of this reason that Imam Bukhari decided to dedicate the rest of his life in compiling a book that would strictly comprise of authentic traditions. The Imam’s mission was further strengthened when he was advised by his respected teacher, Sheikh-ul-Hadith Ishaaq Ibn Rahway to compile such a book that would exclusively contain ‘Sahih’ (authentic) Prophetic traditions.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam’s determination grew stronger after seeing himself in a dream, standing in front of the Noble Messenger of Allah (sallallahu alaihi wasallam). He had a fan in his hand and was driving away the flies from the Messenger of Allah (sallallahu alaihi wasallam). After relating the dream to numerous Scholars whom were experts in interpreting dreams, he was told that the dream meant that he would drive away and remove the false traditions that were claimed to have been heard from the Blessed Messenger of Allah (sallallahu alaihi wasallam). It was this dream that fuelled his determination to compile the book that the world recognizes today as ‘Sahih Al-Bukhari.’</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Wherever the Imam went, the compilation of his book would remain constant. At times he was seen compiling his book in Bukhara. Others state that he was seen in Basra. It has also been stated that he was seen writing in both Masjid-ul-Haraam and the Mosque of the Holy Prophet (sallallahu alaihi wasallam).</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">After sixteen years of exceptionally hard work, his famous book had been completed. Despite the excessive number of traditions that the Imam had memorized, he only selected 7275 ahaadith because these were the traditions that held strong testimonials as well as having no doubt in their authenticity. The above number consists of traditions that have been repeated. If the repeated ahaadith were to be excluded, the number of traditions will then become a total of 4,000. It is reported that the Imam would first have a bath then perform two rakat salaah and pray for guidance before inserting a new tradition to his book. The book was reviewed and approved of by great Scholars of his time including Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Ali Ibn Madeeni and Yahya Ibn Mu’een.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">The Imam had inherited a fair amount of wealth which he decided to spend in the path of Allah leaving him with no money. He would spend his days on one or two almonds.</span></div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In spite of the high status and respect that the Imam was worthy of, he would always search for ways however small they may be, to please Allah. There was one such incident where a man from a crowd inside a Mosque had noticed a feather in his beard. The man removed the feather and threw it on the floor. Imam Bukhari was aware of what the man had done, he looked around to make sure nobody was looking, bent down to pick up the feather and placed it in his pocket. The fact that he had just conducted an act of good had immensely pleased him.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">There are lessons to be learned in the piety of Imam Bukhari and the enjoyment that he received from performing salaah. He was once performing the Zuhar prayer. After completing his prayer he began to perform his Nafl. The salaah was performed with complete devotion and composure. Once the salaah had been completed, the Imam turned to face his companions and lifted his shirt asking whether there was anything under it. The crowd saw a wasp fall out leaving seventeen places on the Imam’s body that were swollen and red. The companions were astonished and asked why he had not terminated his salaah, but the Imam replied with an answer that is worth pondering upon. He said that he had felt a certain pleasure in his salaah that made him carry on.</span> </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Governor of Bukhara, Khalid Ibn Ahmad Al-Dhuhli requested the Imam to make visits to the Governor’s home in order to teach his children. The Imam refused, saying that it was an indignity to convey learning to people’s houses. The Imam stressed on the fact that he had greater respect for knowledge than people. A second request was made for the Imam to hold sessions strictly for the Governor’s children. The Imam again refused to give the Governor’s children preferential treatment. This second refusal enraged the Governor; the Imam was therefore expelled from Bukhara. </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Hearing Imam Bukhari’s situation, the people of Samarqand invited him to their hometown. Unfortunately, the Imam again suffered opposition and was forced to make his way towards Khartank where he stayed with his relatives.</div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It was here in Khartank, where he spent his final Ramadhan and on 1 Shawwal 256 AH / 870 CE whilst on a journey from Kartank to Samarqand, that the great Imam Bukhari departed from this world (To Allah we belong and to Him we shall return). The body of this great man was buried in Khartank (May Allah shower blessings upon his soul). </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">We have come to the end of what I believe is not even a mere glimpse at the life of Imam Bukhari. Many detailed biographies have been written that should be studied in order to understand exactly why this man had been elevated to such a high status and the reason why the whole of the Islamic World attributed the titles, ‘Commander of the Faithful in Hadith’ and ‘Possessor of the most powerful memory in the world’ to him. </div><div style="color: white;"><br />
</div><div style="color: white; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Lessons should be learned from the Imam’s steadfastness, piety and manners. May Allah strengthen our love for the beautiful traditions of the Chosen Messenger of Allah (sallallahu alaihi wasallam) and may Allah bless us and accept our efforts in the cause of Islam like He accepted the man who has left a mark on the pages of Hadith forever. </div><span style="font-family: Verdana;"><span style="color: #333333;"> </span></span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;"><span style="color: #333333;"> </span></span> </div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-26885537353735595782011-02-03T20:55:00.000+06:002011-02-03T20:55:15.308+06:00Biography of John Keats<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvlqfvoCb0ou917YmZLpNJrF4-fP14kIMEenzAq_V1bAmMDqPoz3AKVyiRWoCACY0NrTAgkxeE0K4JQ_9sKfu_u6eocMBWuNSWsgljUw-DBou9i49QgiuQ2VBIk0N43EFYc4sg5tJ9bGaW/s1600/John+Keats.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvlqfvoCb0ou917YmZLpNJrF4-fP14kIMEenzAq_V1bAmMDqPoz3AKVyiRWoCACY0NrTAgkxeE0K4JQ_9sKfu_u6eocMBWuNSWsgljUw-DBou9i49QgiuQ2VBIk0N43EFYc4sg5tJ9bGaW/s200/John+Keats.jpg" width="176" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of John Keats (1795-1821)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>John Keats </b>renowned poet of the English Romantic Movement, wrote some of the greatest English language poems including "La Belle Dame Sans Merci", "Ode To A Nightingale", and "Ode On a Grecian Urn".</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
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</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">O Attic shape! Fair attitude! with brede<br />
Of marble men and maidens overwrought,<br />
With forest branches and the trodden weed;<br />
Thou, silent form, dost tease us out of thought<br />
As doth eternity: Cold pastoral!<br />
When old age shall this generation waste,<br />
Thou shalt remain, in midst of other woe<br />
Than ours, a friend to man, to whom thou sayst,<br />
"Beauty is truth, truth beauty,--that is all<br />
Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know."</span></b><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="float: right; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">John Keats was born on 31 October 1795 in Moorgate, London, England, the first child born to Frances Jennings (b.1775-d.1810) and Thomas Keats (d.1804), an employee of a livery stable. He had three siblings: George (1797-1841).Thomas (1799-1818), and Frances Mary "Fanny" (1803-1889). After leaving school in Enfield, Keats went on to apprentice with Dr. Hammond, a surgeon in Edmonton. After his father died in a riding accident, and his mother died of tuberculosis, John and his brothers moved to Hampstead. It was here that Keats met Charles Armitage Brown (1787-1842) who would become a great friend. Remembering his first meeting with him, Brown writes <i>"His full fine eyes were lustrously intellectual, and beaming (at that time!)"</i>. Much grieved by his death, Brown worked for many years on his memoir and biography, <i>Life of John Keats</i> (1841). In it Brown claims that it was not until Keats read Edmund Spencer's <i>Faery Queen</i> that he realised his own gift for the poetic. Keats was an avid student in the fields of medicine and natural history, but he then turned his attentions to the literary works of such authors as William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer.</span></div> <br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Keats had his poems published in the magazines of the day at the encouragement of many including James Henry Leigh Hunt Esq. (1784-1859), editor of the <i>Examiner</i> and to whom Keats dedicated his first collection <i>Poems</i> (1817). It includes "To My Brother George", "O Solitude! If I Must With Thee Dwell", and "Happy is England! I Could Be Content". Upon its appearance a series of personal attacks directed at Keats ensued in the pages of <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>. Despite the controversy surrounding his life, Keats's literary merit prevailed. That same year Keats met Percy Bysshe Shelley who would also become a great friend. When Shelley invited the ailing Keats to stay with him and his family in Italy, he declined. When Shelley's body was washed ashore after drowning, a volume of Keats's poetry was found in his pocket.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Having worked on it for many months, Keats finished his epic poem comprising four books, <i>Endymion: A Poetic Romance</i>--<i>"A thing of beauty is a joy for ever"</i>--in 1818. That summer he travelled to the Lake District of England and on to Ireland and Scotland on a walking tour with Brown. They visited the grave of Robert Burns and reminisced upon John Milton's poetry. While he was not aware of the seriousness of it, Keats was suffering from the initial stages of the deadly infectious disease tuberculosis. He cut his trip short and upon return to Hampstead immediately tended to his brother Tom who was then in the last stages of the disease. After Tom's death in December of 1818, Keats lived with Brown.</span></div><div style="float: left;"> <center></center> </div><blockquote style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>Early one morning I was awakened in my bed by a pressure on my hand. It was Keats, who came to tell me his brother was no more. I said nothing, and we both remained silent for awhile, my hand fast locked in his. At length, my thoughts returning from the dead to the living, I said--'Have 'nothing more to do with those lodgings,--and 'alone too. Had you not better live with me?' He paused, pressed my hand warmly, and replied,-'I think it would be better.' From that moment he was my inmate.</b></span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Around this time Keats met, fell in love with, and became engaged to eighteen year old Frances "Fanny" Brawne (1800-1865). He wrote one of his more famous sonnets to her titled "Bright Star, would I were steadfast as thou art". While their relationship inspired much spiritual development for Keats, it also proved to be tempestuous, filled with the highs and lows from jealousy and infatuation of first love. Brown was not impressed and tried to provide some emotional stability to Keats. Many for a time were convinced that Fanny was the cause of his illness, or, used that as an excuse to try to keep her away from him. For a while even Keats entertained the possibility that he was merely suffering physical manifestations of emotional anxieties--but after suffering a hemorrhage he gave Fanny permission to break their engagement. She would hear nothing of it and by her word provided much comfort to Keats in his last days that she was ultimately loyal to him.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Although 1819 proved to be his most prolific year of writing, Keats was also in dire financial straits. His brother George had borrowed money he could ill-afford to part with. His earning Fanny's mother's approval to marry depended on his earning as a writer and he started plans with his publisher John Taylor (1781-1864) for his next volume of poems. At the beginning of 1820 Keats started to show more pronounced signs of the deadly tuberculosis that had killed his mother and brother. After a lung hemorrhage, Keats calmly accepted his fate, and he enjoyed several weeks of respite under Brown's watchful eye. As was common belief at the time that bleeding a patient was beneficial to healing, Keats was bled and given opium to relieve his anxiety and pain. He was at times put on a starvation diet, then at other times prescribed to eat meat and drink red wine to gain strength. Despite these ill-advised good-intentions, and suffering increasing weakness and fever, Keats was able to emerge from his fugue and organise the publication of his next volume of poetry.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems</i> (1820) includes some of his best-known and oft-quoted works: "Hyperion", "To Autumn", and "Ode To A Nightingale". "Nightingale" evokes all the pain and suffering that Keats experienced during his short life-time: the death of his mother; the physical anguish he saw as a young apprentice tending to the sick and dying at St. Guy's Hospital; the death of his brother; and ultimately his own physical and spiritual suffering in love and illness. Keats lived to see positive reviews of <i>Lamia</i>, even in <i>Blackwood's</i> magazine. But the positivity was not to last long; Brown left for Scotland and the ailing Keats lived with Hunt for a time. But it was unbearable to him and only exacerbated his condition--he was unable to see Fanny, so, when he showed up at the Brawne's residence in much emotional agitation, sick, and feverish, they could not refuse him. He enjoyed a month with them, blissfully under the constant care of his beloved Fanny. Possibly bolstered by his finally having unrestricted time with her, and able to imagine a happy future with her, Keats considered his last hope of recovery of a rest cure in the warm climes of Italy. As a parting gift Fanny gave him a piece of marble which she had often clasped to cool her hand. In September of 1820 Keats sailed to Rome with friend and painter Joseph Severn (1793-1879, who was unaware of his circumstances with Fanny and the gravity of his health.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Keats put on a bold front but it soon became apparent to Severn that he was terminally ill. They stayed in rooms on the Piazza Navona near the Spanish Steps, and enjoyed the lively sights and sounds of the people and culture, but Keats soon fell into a deep depression. When his attending doctor James Clark (1788-1870) finally voiced aloud the grim prognosis, Keats's medical background came to the fore and he longed to end his life and avoid the humiliating physical and mental torments of tuberculosis. By early 1821 he was confined to bed, Severn a devoted nurse. Keats had resolved not to write to Fanny and would not read a letter from her for fear of the pain it would cause him, although he constantly clasped her marble. During bouts of coughing, fever, nightmares, Keats also tried to cheer his friend, who held him till the end.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">John Keats died on 23 February 1821 in Rome, Italy, and now rests in the Protestant Cemetery in Rome, by the pyramid of Caius Cestius, near his friend Shelley. His epitaph reads <i>"Here lies one whose name was writ in water"</i>, inspired by the line <i>"all your better deeds, Shall be in water writ"</i> from Francis Beaumont (1584-1616) and John Fletcher's (1579-1625) five act play <i>Philaster or: Love Lies A-bleeding</i>. Just a year later, Shelley was buried in the same cemetery, not long after he had written "Adonais" (1821) in tribute to his friend;</span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><blockquote style="font-family: "Helvetica Neue",Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b>I weep for Adonais--he is dead!<br />
O, weep for Adonais! though our tears<br />
Thaw not the frost which binds so dear a head!<br />
And thou, sad Hour, selected from all years<br />
To mourn our loss, rouse thy obscure compeers,<br />
And teach them thine own sorrow, say: "With me<br />
Died Adonais; till the Future dares<br />
Forget the Past, his fate and fame shall be<br />
An echo and a light unto eternity!"</b></span></blockquote></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Fanny Brawne married in 1833 and died at the age of sixty-five. English poet and friend of Brown's, Richard Monckton Milnes (1809-1885) wrote <i>Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats</i> (1848). During his lifetime and since, John Keats inspired numerous other authors, poets, and artists, and remains one of the most widely read and studied 19th century poets.</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-9596636542676652692011-02-03T20:19:00.000+06:002011-02-03T20:19:29.182+06:00Biography of Abraham Lincoln<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDBO2lVBvju9seRu4FpGifq2D3s_iGzvNiuqEKQGxSPNG5d4Dbb-qg46McSzk_3QPcXiZdYrV_KP2CgIfyHbmufTrGUcAP1w-PmK590BiYRrLqSf3V0A3y8FLm3c7X9mAZy7w58yxe_4DM/s1600/abe.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiDBO2lVBvju9seRu4FpGifq2D3s_iGzvNiuqEKQGxSPNG5d4Dbb-qg46McSzk_3QPcXiZdYrV_KP2CgIfyHbmufTrGUcAP1w-PmK590BiYRrLqSf3V0A3y8FLm3c7X9mAZy7w58yxe_4DM/s200/abe.gif" width="182" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Biography of Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)</span></b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">Abraham Lincoln was born on a small farm near Larue, Kentucky. His family lived in a one-room log cabin that was typical for poor farmers on the Kentucky frontier. When Abraham was three, his family moved to another farm in Knob Creek, Kentucky. The farm was located on the main road that connected Louisville, Kentucky and Nashville, Tennessee. </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">As a young boy, Abraham Lincoln met many people as they moved along the Louisville-Nashville road – pioneer families, peddlers, and politicians who were traveling to the state capital.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">There was always plenty of work for the young Abraham. Since there were no schools on the Kentucky frontier, Abraham Lincoln could spend his days working. And he did. He plowed the fields at planting time, he pulled weeds that grew up around the crops, and he kept the box of firewood filled all the time, along with many other chores. When he was eight, his family moved to Indiana, where his mother died less than two years later. His father then married Sarah Johnson, who helped Abraham learn to read.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">By age 16, Abraham was a tall, slim, and strong young man. He did any and all odd jobs anyone would hire him for. He worked as a farmhand, grocery clerk, and rail splitter. He also worked as a deckhand on a flatboat that floated down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans. </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">In 1836, Abraham Lincoln received his license to practice law. After practicing law for a while, he was elected to the House of Representatives. He served one term and then returned to Springfield, Illinois to resume his law practice. In 1855, when the Kansas-Nebraska Act that allowed new states to decide whether or not they wanted to be admitted as slave states was passed, Abraham Lincoln was called to action.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">In 1858, he ran for the Senate against Stephen Douglas, who was in favor of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. During this election campaign, Lincoln and Douglas debated each other on the topic of slavery. These debates are known as the Lincoln-Douglas debates, and they are some of the most famous debates in American history. Douglas won the election, but these debates made Lincoln famous.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">In 1860, the Republican party chose Abraham Lincoln as their candidate for president. The elections were held in the fall of 1860 and Lincoln won. Soon afterward, South Carolina and other states seceded from the Union. By the time Lincoln got into office, tensions between the North and South were very strong. If fact, one month after Lincoln took office, southern soldiers fired on Union-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. This was the beginning of the war between the states, now known as the Civil War.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">In 1862, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which granted freedom to all slaves in the South. After two years of a war that was being won by the South, this proclamation did not have much effect. But in July 1863, there was a battle at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania where the Southern army was forced to retreat, and for the first time the North got the upper hand. </span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">Later that year, Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address, one of the most famous American speeches of all time:</span></span></div> <b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT"> </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT"> </span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT"> <span style="font-size: small;">GETTYSBURG ADDRESS</span></span></span></b><br />
<blockquote> <span class="bioTEXT"></span></blockquote><blockquote><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span class="bioTEXT">Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.</span></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span class="bioTEXT">Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.</span></b></span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate – we cannot consecrate – we cannot hallow – this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us – that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion – that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom – and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the Earth.</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">Less than a week after this speech, Ulysses S. Grant took command of the Union army and began to force all rebel forces to the Deep South. In the meantime, General William Tecumseh Sherman was marching toward Atlanta in his famous "march to the sea."With things going well for the Union, Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election of 1864. When he took his oath of office at the beginning of his second term, he urged that instead of taking vengeance against the South, there should be "malice toward none and charity for all."</span></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span class="bioTEXT">On April 14, 1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate forces, Lincoln attended a theater performance with his wife. A man named John Wilkes Booth crept up behind Lincoln and shot him in the head. President Lincoln died the next day.</span></span></div><br />
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</div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-37038069874100757892011-02-03T19:46:00.000+06:002011-02-03T19:46:06.819+06:00Biography of Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhplZa13y-2cEDmTsgwGVgx0af0jXSeoVCOLEeTppXd89kut8u2vEzUF_VSLg278xq8Q_bo5TbV5a8AIamEEi9R-0cEtU1cB3IVx73-7tv9lh741QE7sHNKW5zmoSCPqNqPVFmKdfmOWLD1/s1600/page19_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhplZa13y-2cEDmTsgwGVgx0af0jXSeoVCOLEeTppXd89kut8u2vEzUF_VSLg278xq8Q_bo5TbV5a8AIamEEi9R-0cEtU1cB3IVx73-7tv9lh741QE7sHNKW5zmoSCPqNqPVFmKdfmOWLD1/s200/page19_1.jpg" width="150" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky (1821-1881)</b></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><br />
</div><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Russian novelist, journalist, short-story writer, whose psychological penetration into the human soul profoundly influenced the 20th century novel. Dostoevsky's novels have much autobiographical elements, but ultimately they deal with moral and philosophical questions. He presented interacting characters with contrasting views or ideas about freedom of choice, Socialism, atheisms, good and evil, happiness and so forth. Dostoevsky's central obsession was God, whom his characters constantly search through painful errors and humiliations.</span> <blockquote><span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">"But you're a poet, and I'm a simple mortal, and therefore I will say one must look at things from the simplest, most practical point of view. I, for one, have long since freed myself from all shackles, and even obligations. I only recognize obligations when I see I have something to gain by them. You. of course, can't look at things like that, your legs are in fetters and your taste is morbid. You yearn for the ideal, for virtue. But, my dear friend, I am ready to recognize anything you tell me to, but what shall I do if I know for a fact that at the root of all human virtues lies the most intense egoism?"</span> </b></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">(Prince Valkovsky in <i>The Insulted and Humiliated</i>, 1861)</span></blockquote><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Fyodor Dostoevsky was born in Moscow, the second son of a staff doctor at the Hospital for the Poor – later Dostoevsky's father acquired an estate and serfs. Dostoevsky was educated at home and at a private school. With his pious mother he made annual pilgrimages to the monastery of the Trinity and Saint Sergei. Shortly after her death in 1837, he was sent to St. Petersburg, where he entered the Academy for Military Engineers. Dostoevsky was commissioned as a 2nd lieutenant in 1842 and next years he graduated as a War Ministry draftsman. He had no interest in military engineering but at the academy he could also study Russian and French literature. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dostoevsky's father Mikhail Andreevich died in 1839, probably of apoplexy, but there was strong rumors that he was murdered by his own serfs in a quarrel. With the help of a small income from the estate, he resigned in 1844 his commission to devote himself to writing. His first novel, <i>Poor Folk</i> (1846), which he wrote in a little over nine months in his small room, gained a great success with the critics, who hailed Dostoevsky as the new Gogol. "We all came from Gogol's overcoat," Dostoevsky said. One critic remarked dryly, "You have Gogols growing like mushrooms." The leading literary critic Vissarion Belinsky called <i>Poor Folk</i> "the first attempt at a social novel we've had".</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Poor Folk</i> was followed by <i>The Double</i> (1846), subtitled "A Petersburg Poem", which irritated Dostoevsky's former admirer, Vissarion Belinsky. In the story a man is losing his mind – he is haunted by a look-alike who eventually usurps his position. Belinsky remarked that such atypical "psychopathic" characters belonged in madhouses rather than in works of art. </span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1846 Dostoevsky joined a group of utopian socialists, who gathered Mihail Petrashevsky's home. Petrashevsky was an eccentric and socialist, who once went to a church dressed as a woman. The secret police had placed an agent in the group, and on April 23 in 1849 Dostoevsky was arrested during a reading of Vissarion Belinsky's radical letter 'Selected Passages from Correspondence with Friends,' and sentenced to death. With mock execution, which thoroughly shocked the writer, the sentence was commuted to imprisonment in Siberia. Dostoevsky spent four years in hard labor in a stockade, wearing fetters. Many of the other convicts had committed murder. On his release in 1854 he was assigned as a common soldier in Semipalatinsk. Eventually he became an ensign. These experiences provided subject matter for the his future works. His heroes and heroines reflected moral values which were vitally important for the author. They also were men and women of action, whose thoughts influenced deeply the young in Russia. During the years in Siberia Dostoevsky became a monarchist and a devout follower of the Russian Orthodox Church. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dostoevsky returned to St. Petersburg in 1859 as a writer with a religious mission. He published three works that derive in different ways from his Siberia experiences: <i>The House of the Dead</i> (1861-62), a fictional account of prison life, <i>The Insulted and Injured</i> (1861), which reflects the author's refutation of naive Utopianism in the face of evil, and <i>Winter Notes on Summer Impressions</i> (1863), his account of trip to Western Europe.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>The Insulted and Injured</i> was greeted by Dostoevsky's old and new readers with enthusiasm. It was completed after his penal service and exile, and published on his return to Petersburg. The narrator is Ivan Petrovich, a young aspiring writer. His literary debut, working methods, and social situation were taken from Dostoevsky's own life. The hero falls from the fame into poverty. When the book appeared it was coldly received by the critics. Dostoevsky defended the work in an open letter, writing that he knew for certain that even though the novel should be a failure, there would be poetry in it, and the two most important characters would be portrayed truthfully and even artistically. </span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1857 Dostoevsky married Maria Isaev, a 29-year old widow. He resigned from the army two years later. Between the years 1861 and 1863 he served as the editor of the monthly periodical <i> Time</i>. The paper was later suppressed because of an article on the Polish uprising. In 1862 Dostoevsky went to abroad for the first time, traveling in France and England. He traveled Europe again in 1863 and 1865. During this period his wife and brother died, he was obsessed with gambling, and plagued by debts and frequent epileptic seizures. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">From the turmoil of the 1860s emerged <i>Notes from Underground </i>(1864), a psychological study of an outsider. The book marked a watershed in Dostoevsky artistic development. <i>Notes from Underground</i> starts with a confession by the narrator. "I am a sick man.... I am a spiteful man. I am a most unpleasant man. I think my liver is diseased." The story continues with the monologue of the Underground man, who reveals his inner self to his imaginary reader. He is humiliated by his former schoolmates in a party and he gets very drunk. In a dark shop, which functions as a brothel in the evenings, he makes impressive speeches to a humble prostitute, Liza. "What are you giving up here? What are you enslaving? Why, you're enslaving your soul; something you don't really own, together with your body! You're giving away your love to be defiled by any drunkard! Love! After all, that's all there is!" He humiliates her, gives money when she only shows her real caring, but eventually she demonstrates her moral superiority. <i>Notes from Underground</i> was followed by <i>Crime and Punishment </i>(1866), an account of an individual's fall and redemption, <i>The Idiot </i>(1868-69), depicting a Christ-like figure, Prince Myshkin, through whom the author revealed the spiritual bankruptcy of Russia, and <i>The Possessed </i>(1872), an exploration of philosophical nihilism. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Crime and Punishment </i>was serialized in <i>Ruskii vestnik</i> (The Russian Messenger) from January through December 1866 and appeared in a book form next year. On one level the novel belongs to the genre of detective fiction, but Dostoevsky's interest lies on the criminal – the sinner. The story is set in St. Petersburg, which Dostoevsky called the "most fantastic city in the world". The city, with its mythology, also becomes the accomplice of the protagonist, Raskolnikov, a young resentful student. An assiduous readers of newspapers, Dostoevsky saw in the crime reports symbolic meanings, signs of the hidden ills of the whole society. </span></div><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Raskolnikov kills a pawnbroker, a greedy old woman, and her half-witted stepsister as well. He attempts to justify the murder in terms of its advantageous social consequences. He argues that each age gives birth to a few superior beings who are not constrained by ordinary morality – and he is one of such beings. The core of the novel is dialogue, as its is in Dostoevsky's other major works. Under the influence of the meek, Christian prostitute Sonia, Raskolnikov confronts the hollowness of his thoughts, which eventually leads to confession and redemption. Raskolnikov's nemesis is Porfiry Petrovich, a police investigator, who knows his guilt. In the demonic Svidrigailov, who commits suicide, Raskolnikov sees his own picture. </span><b style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">"</b><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">You know," confesses Svidrigailov to Raskolnikov, "from the very beginning I always thought it was a pity that your sister had not chanced to be born in the second or third century of our era, as the daughter of a ruling prince somewhere, or some governor or proconsul in Asia minor. She would doubtless have been one of those who suffered martyrdom, and she would, of course, have smiled when they burned her breast with red-hot pinchers. She would have deliberately brought it on herself." In his agony Raskolnikov realizes, that in murdering he has killed the essentially human in himself. Raskolnikov goes to Siberia for seven years. Sonia follows him to his imprisonment. – The novel has been filmed several times. Josef von Sternberg's version from 1935, starring Peter Lorre as Raskolnikov, was primarily a detective story. In the same year Pierre Chenal made his adaptation, </span><i style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Crime et châtiment</i><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">. Denis Sanders moved the action to contemporary California in 1959. Lev Kulidjanov's version from 1969 was long – 3 hours and 20 minutes – and the most ambitious of all.</span></span> <br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dostoevsky married in 1867 Anna Grigoryevna Snitkina, his 22-years old stenographer, who seems to have understood her husband's manias and rages. To avoid his creditors Dostoevsky left Russia with her and spent time in Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, mostly in poverty. He was obsessed with gambling, but in Russia his literary fame only grew. When <i>The Possessed</i> turned out to be a success, he returned to Russia, and purchased a house in the provincial town of Staraya Russa. From 1873 to 1874 Dostoevsky was editor of the conservative weekly <i>Citizen</i>. Among his friends was Konstantin Pobedonostsev, a reactionary and the tutor to the czarevitch Alexander. In 1876 he founded his own monthly, <i>The Writer's Diary</i>. From its writings he collected <i>The Diary of a Writer </i>(1876). </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Dostoevsky's short story from this period 'The Gentle Maiden' (1876) inspired later Robert Bresson's film<i> Une Femme Douce</i> (1969). In the story, narrated in first-person, a husband searches the reason for his wife's suicide and goes through their life together. "How it has happened I cannot tell, I try, again and again, to explain it to myself. Ever since six o'clock I have been trying to explain it, yet cannot bring my thoughts to a focus. Perhaps it is through trying so much that I fail." Gradually his narration reveals him as pompous, cruel, and tyrannical man. "She could go nowhere without my leave," he says, and the reader realizes that suicide offered her the only way to escape from her domineering husband.</span> </div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">By the time of <i>The Brothers of Karamazov</i> (1879-80), Dostoevsky was recognized in his own country as one of its great writers. He enjoyed his role as a prophet, an original public voice in the crisis period of his country. Dostoevsky final novel culminated his lifelong obsession with patricide – the assumed murder of his father had left deep marks on the author's psyche. The novel is constructed around a simple plot, dealing with the murder of the father of the Karamazov family. One of the sons, Dmitri, is arrested. The brothers represent three aspects of man's being: reason (Ivan), emotion (Dmitri) and faith (Alesha). This material is transcended into a moral and spiritual statement of contemporary society.</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">An epileptic all his life, Dostoevsky died in St. Petersburg on February 9 (New Style), 1881. He was buried in the Aleksandr Nevsky monastery, St. Petersburg. Anna Grigoryevna devoted the rest of her life to cherish the literary heritage of her husband. Dostoevsky's novels anticipated many of the ideas of Nietzsche and Freud. Dostoevsky himself was strongly influenced by such thinkers as Aleksandr Herzen and Vissarion Belinsky. He saw that great art must have liberty to develop on its own terms, but it always deals with central social concerns. He supported the Russian war against Turkey, and like much later Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, he emphasized more the spiritual transformation of the individual than social revolution. In the notorious essay 'The Jewish Question' the author did not hide his anti-Semitism. Dostoevsky's novels have been read in many ways – according to some biographical interpretations, he raped a young girl, which he revealed in a fictionalized form in his writings. Dostoevsky nerver met his great contemporary writer Leo Tolstoy. The Westernizing Turgenev was in many ways his opposite. </span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-22116900160335344892011-02-03T19:03:00.001+06:002011-02-03T19:17:10.926+06:00Biography of Louis Pasteur<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgF8JAKhSZdVElN5oXQmar8Zy_15uoIuvXuhGlYG13ZQyUa5aNZdcGyYtioHbj0jvPbkwIT7UdIhj8PcBXyfDA-dfnz-WoX_UCKUxkkX8Bx2SdNNE8AWCJSairGGJlNG7YpA6h6_nNnpbg2/s1600/400px-PSM_V20_D742_Louis_Pasteur.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgF8JAKhSZdVElN5oXQmar8Zy_15uoIuvXuhGlYG13ZQyUa5aNZdcGyYtioHbj0jvPbkwIT7UdIhj8PcBXyfDA-dfnz-WoX_UCKUxkkX8Bx2SdNNE8AWCJSairGGJlNG7YpA6h6_nNnpbg2/s200/400px-PSM_V20_D742_Louis_Pasteur.jpg" width="161" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Louis Pasteur was a world renowned French chemist and biologist. He was born on December 27 1822 in the town of Dole in Eastern France. Pasteur's parents were peasants, his father was a tanner by trade. He spent the early days of his life in the small town of Arbois where he attended school and where it seems that Pasteur did not do very well, preferring instead to go fishing. His headmaster, however, spotted potential in Pasteur and encouraged him to go to Paris to study. So, aged fifteen Pasteur set off for Paris hoping to study for his entrance exams. Unfortunately, the young Pasteur was so homesick that his father had to travel to Paris to bring him home. He then continued to study locally at Besancon, until he decided to try again in Paris. This time he succeeded and went on to study at the Ecole Normale Superieure. Curiously, although the young Pasteur worked hard during his student days he was not considered to be exceptional in any way at chemistry.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In 1847 Pasteur was awarded his doctorate and then took up a post as assistant to one of his teachers. He spent several years teaching and carrying out research at Dijon and Strasbourg and in 1854 moved to the University of Lille where he became professor of chemistry. Here he continued the work on fermentation he had already started at Strasbourg. By 1857 Pasteur had become world famous and took up a post at the Ecole Normale Superieure in Paris. In 1863 he became dean of the new science faculty at Lille University. While there, he started evening classes for workers. In 1867 a laboratory was established for his discovery of the rabies vaccine, using public funds. It became known as the Pasteur Institute and was headed by Pasteur until his death in 1895.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Book Antiqua; font-size: x-small;">Pasteur founded the science of microbiology and proved that most infectious diseases are caused by micro-organisms. This became known as the "germ theory" of disease. He was the inventor of the process of pasteurisation and also developed vaccines for several diseases including rabies. The discovery of the vaccine for rabies led to the founding of the Pasteur Institute in Paris in 1888.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"></span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">When he was only twenty-six years old Pasteur solved a problem that had been puzzling the great chemists of the day. He found that when light was passed through tartaric acid - this was found in wine dregs, it produced a strange effect. Pasteur proved that this was because the acid is actually not one acid but a mixture of different acids. This find impressed the scientists of influence and established Pasteur's reputation.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">While at the University of Strasbourg he became interested in fermentation and this interest continued when he moved to the University of Lille. The faculty had been established partly to serve as a means of applying science to the problems of the industries of the region, especially the production of alcoholic drinks. This work in fermentation enabled Pasteur to identify that the changes brought about when beer or wine ferments, milk turns sour or meat decays, occur when special micro-organisms are present.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">As a result of these findings Pasteur was asked to help the local breweries where the beer had turned bad. The souring of wine and beer was a major economic problem in France. Pasteur looked at some droplets of bad beer through a microscope and observed that the beer contained small rod shaped bacteria, instead of round yeast cells. Although micro-organisms are essential in fermentation they must be the right ones. This was a major discovery. Pasteur made brewing a more scientific procedure and showed brewers how to culture the right organisms for good beer. He also demonstrated to the wine industry that if wine is gently heated to sixty degrees celsius for a short time, the growth of harmful bacteria is prevented and the wine does not go sour in bottles or barrels.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur then extended this to other problems such as the souring of milk. He proposed heating the milk to a high temperature and pressure before bottling. The process is now in widespread use and is called pasteurisation.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">By 1857 Pasteur had become world famous and took up an appointment as director of scientific studies at the Ecole Normale in Paris. He was asked to help to investigate a serious disease that was ruining the silk industry in southern France. The disease known as pebrine attacked the silk worms. The signs of the disease were that the eggs did not hatch or the worms would die before making their silk cocoons. It had now reached epidemic proportions and even disease free worms brought in from Spain and Italy had been contaminated. By 1864 there were no uncontaminated eggs left, except for those brought in from Japan.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur observed through his microscope that the diseased caterpillars and eggs all contained tiny organisms. He identified these as disease producing organisms. He managed to obtain some healthy worms and he divided them into two lots. He fed one lot with mulberry leaves smeared with the remains of diseased worms and fed the others with mulberry leaves smeared with the remains of healthy worms. Pasteur was able to show that the worms fed on diseased smeared leaves got the disease, whereas those fed on uncontaminated leaves remained disease free. He then worked with the silk industry to devise a simple way of keeping silk worms under healthy conditions and therefore disease free.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Not only had Pasteur rescued the French silk industry but he had established the connection between bacteria and disease. The connection had not been fully understood before.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur's work on the link between bacteria and disease came to the attention of the famous Edinburgh surgeon Lord Lister. Lord Lister was concerned with the number of people who died after having operations in hospital. To combat infection, Lister introduced disinfectant sprays during operations, these prevented bacteria from entering a wound. He also introduced the use of dressings soaked in carbolic acid and strict hygiene rules to combat sepsis. The sterile methods introduced by Lister, drastically reduced the number of hospital deaths.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In France at that time many cattle suffered from anthrax, a serious disease from which many of them died. Pasteur made a careful study of anthrax and noticed that some cows developed the disease more severely than others. So he decided to inject two cows with a strong dose of the anthrax bacteria, fully expecting them to die. To Pasteur's amazement neither of them developed the disease. Later, he found that both animals had already suffered from anthrax. Could they be immune to it? Could they be protected in some other way? Pasteur believed that if it were possible to give an animal a mild attack, this might be sufficient to prevent it from getting the disease later on.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Eventually, after many experiments Pasteur succeeded in producing a weakened and harmless culture of anthrax bacteria. He inoculated cattle and sheep with this giving them a mild form from which they recovered. When these animals were put with others who had a severe form they remained unaffected. They were immune.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur worked throughout the rest of his life on the various causes of diseases and how these could be prevented by vaccination.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur is particularly renowned for his work on the vaccine for rabies, a highly contagious infection which attacks the central nervous system. It enters the body through the bite of an infected animal or through infected saliva entering an existing wound. After experimenting with the saliva of animals suffering from the disease, Pasteur concluded that the disease rests in the central nervous system of the body. When an extract from the spinal column of an rabid dog was injected into healthy animals symptoms of rabies were produced. By studying the tissues of infected animals- rabbits, Pasteur was able to produce an attenuated form of the virus. This could be used for inoculation.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On July 6 1885, Pasteur tested his pioneering rabies vaccine on man for the first time. He saved the life of a young man called Joseph Meister who had been bitten by a rabid dog. Pasteur was urged to treat him with his new method. The treatment lasted 10 days and at the end he recovered and remained healthy. Since then thousands have been saved by this treatment.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">On March 1886, Pasteur was invited to present his results to the Academy of Sciences and in 1888 went on to found the Pasteur Institute in Paris. This was a pioneering clinic for the study of infectious diseases, the treatment of rabies and a centre for teaching. Pasteur directed the Institute personally until he died. The Pasteur Institute is still one of the most important centres in the world.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur became a national hero and was honoured in many ways. He died at Saint-Cloud on 28 September 1895 and was given a state funeral at the Cathedral of Notre Dame and his body placed in a permanent crypt at the Pasteur Institute.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Modifications of the Pasteur method are still used in rabies therapy today. The traditional vaccine contains inactivated rabies virus grown in duck eggs. A newer vaccine which contains virus prepared from human cells grown in the laboratory is safer and requires a shorter course of injections.</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-84760744008102379162011-02-03T00:15:00.001+06:002011-02-03T00:36:24.023+06:00Biography of Albert Einstein<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOZ51aHJXgHbQTMTUEkKovzR9Vl_4_NJyU1F3b9dKzQtE304OFndl8zGTabaNjqO2BiMXvouW4tlCKEuMGegBCdl8xhRjGvpFEC-JHTpARcqnzDpfvgc-JhA4qZWBSSd_IsSq0B75aj4NR/s1600/Albert_Einstein_portrait.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOZ51aHJXgHbQTMTUEkKovzR9Vl_4_NJyU1F3b9dKzQtE304OFndl8zGTabaNjqO2BiMXvouW4tlCKEuMGegBCdl8xhRjGvpFEC-JHTpARcqnzDpfvgc-JhA4qZWBSSd_IsSq0B75aj4NR/s200/Albert_Einstein_portrait.jpg" width="148" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Biography of Albert Einstein (1879-1955)</span></b></div><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. Six weeks later the family moved to Munich, where he later on began his schooling at the Luitpold Gymnasium. Later, they moved to Italy and Albert continued his education at Aarau, Switzerland and in 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. In 1901, the year he gained his diploma, he acquired Swiss citizenship and, as he was unable to find a teaching post, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.<br />
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During his stay at the Patent Office, and in his spare time, he produced much of his remarkable work and in 1908 he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909 he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich, in 1911 Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague, returning to Zurich in the following year to fill a similar post. In 1914 he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. He became a German citizen in 1914 and remained in Berlin until 1933 when he renounced his citizenship for political reasons and emigrated to America to take the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton</span><span style="font-size: x-small;">. He became a United States citizen in 1940 and retired from his post in 1945.<br />
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After World War II, Einstein was a leading figure in the World Government Movement, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, and he collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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Einstein always appeared to have a clear view of the problems of physics and the determination to solve them. He had a strategy of his own and was able to visualize the main stages on the way to his goal. He regarded his major achievements as mere stepping-stones for the next advance.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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At the start of his scientific work, Einstein realized the inadequacies of Newtonian mechanics and his special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory: this led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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In his early days in Berlin, Einstein postulated that the correct interpretation of the special theory of relativity must also furnish a theory of gravitation and in 1916 he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories, although he continued to work on the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, and he persevered with this work in America. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas and he has also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics, taking the opposite approach, geometrisation, to the majority of physicists.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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Einstein's researches are, of course, well chronicled and his more important works include </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>Special Theory of Relativity</i> (1905), <i>Relativity</i> (English translations, 1920 and 1950), <i>General Theory of Relativity</i> (1916), <i>Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement</i> (1926), and <i>The Evolution of Physics</i> (1938). Among his non-scientific works, <i>About Zionism</i> (1930), <i>Why War?</i> (1933), <i>My Philosophy</i> (1934), and <i>Out of My Later Years</i> (1950) are perhaps the most important.<br />
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Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's he lectured in Europe, America and the Far East and he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.</span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br />
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Einstein's gifts inevitably resulted in his dwelling much in intellectual solitude and, for relaxation, music played an important part in his life. He married Mileva Maric in 1903 and they had a daughter and two sons; their marriage was dissolved in 1919 and in the same year he married his cousin, Elsa Löwenthal, who died in 1936. He died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.</span> </div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-76505191427690712652011-02-02T20:29:00.001+06:002011-02-03T00:37:02.315+06:00Biography of William Shakespeare<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimvI3t8oTnZ6NQpqWvJAP0boQLBQMNyQQxRB7ksPLJK1MfW0G2tE5ZcaOOYuc3hAhx9BUW5-owB_-8DTOnb-mxogz0av0JH1qtprdQaYf0q4vLCRjWnlNClPYm4B83jYkDMfm8mAIsvCvo/s1600/william-shakespeare.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimvI3t8oTnZ6NQpqWvJAP0boQLBQMNyQQxRB7ksPLJK1MfW0G2tE5ZcaOOYuc3hAhx9BUW5-owB_-8DTOnb-mxogz0av0JH1qtprdQaYf0q4vLCRjWnlNClPYm4B83jYkDMfm8mAIsvCvo/s200/william-shakespeare.gif" width="168" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;"><b>Biography of William Shakespeare (1564-1616)</b></span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">William Shakespeare was born to John Shakespeare and mother Mary Arden some time in late April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon. There is no record of his birth, but his baptism was recorded by the church, thus his birthday is assumed to be the 23 of April. His father was a prominent and prosperous alderman in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon, and was later granted a coat of arms by the College of Heralds. All that is known of Shakespeare's youth is that he presumably attended the Stratford Grammar School, and did not proceed to Oxford or Cambridge. The next record we have of him is his marriage to Anne Hathaway in 1582. The next year she bore a daughter for him, Susanna, followed by the twins Judith and Hamnet two years later. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Seven years later Shakespeare is recognized as an actor, poet and playwright, when a rival playwright, Robert Greene, refers to him as "an upstart crow" in <i>A Groatsworth of Wit</i>. A few years later he joined up with one of the most successful acting troupe's in London: The Lord Chamberlain's Men. When, in 1599, the troupe lost the lease of the theatre where they performed, (appropriately called The Theatre) they were wealthy enough to build their own theatre across the Thames, south of London, which they called "The Globe." The new theatre opened in July of 1599, built from the timbers of The Theatre, with the motto "Totus mundus agit histrionem" (A whole world of players) When James I came to the throne (1603) the troupe was designated by the new king as the King's Men (or King's Company). The Letters Patent of the company specifically charged Shakespeare and eight others "freely to use and exercise the art and faculty of playing Comedies, Tragedies, Histories, Inerludes, Morals, Pastorals, stage plays ... as well for recreation of our loving subjects as for our solace and pleasure." </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Shakespeare entertained the king and the people for another ten years until June 19, 1613, when a canon fired from the roof of the theatre for a gala performance of Henry VIII set fire to the thatch roof and burned the theatre to the ground. The audience ignored the smoke from the roof at first, being to absorbed in the play, until the flames caught the walls and the fabric of the curtains. Amazingly there were no casualties, and the next spring the company had the theatre "new builded in a far fairer manner than before." Although Shakespeare invested in the rebuilding, he retired from the stage to the Great House of New Place in Statford that he had purchased in 1597, and some considerable land holdings ,where he continued to write until his death in 1616 on the day of his 52nd birthday.</span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">In his time William wrote 13 Comedies, 13 Historical Plays, 6 Tragedies, 4 Tragicomedies, as well as many sonnets (154) , which were mostly dedicated to his patron, Henry Wriothsley, The Earl of Southampton.</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">Comedies</span></b></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br />
</div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Comedy of Errors" 1592<br />
"The Taming of the Shrew" 1592-94<br />
"Love's Labor's Lost" 1594-95<br />
"Two Gentlemen of Verona" 1594-95<br />
"A Midsummer Night's Dream" 1595-96<br />
"The Merchant of Venice" 1596-97<br />
"Much Ado About Nothing" 1598-99<br />
"As You Like It" 1599-1600<br />
"Twelfth Night" 1599-1600<br />
"Merry Wives of Windsor" 1601-02<br />
"Troilus and Cressida" 1601-02<br />
"All's Well That Ends Well" 1602-03<br />
"Measure for Measure" 1604-05</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>Historical</b></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Henry VI" parts I, II, III 1590-92<br />
"Richard III" 1590-92<br />
"King John" 1594-96<br />
"Richard II" 1597-(?)<br />
"King Henry IV" part I, part II 1597-98<br />
"Henry V (1599)" 1598-99<br />
"Julius Caesar" 1599-1600<br />
"Henry VIII" 1613-(?)<br />
"Antony and Cleopatra" 1606-07<br />
"Coriolanus" 1607-08</span></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="font-size: x-small;">Tragedies</span></b></div><br />
<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Titus Andronicus" 1593-94<br />
"Romeo and Juliet" 1594-95<br />
"Hamlet" 1600-01<br />
"Othello" 1604-05<br />
"The Tragedy of King Lear" 1605-06<br />
"Macbeth" 1605-06</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Tragicomedies</span></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Timon of Athens" 1607-(?)<br />
"Cymbeline" 1609-10<br />
"The Winter's Tale" 1610-11<br />
"Tempest" 1611-12</span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-3669873099364107642011-02-02T16:31:00.003+06:002011-02-03T00:37:37.139+06:00Biography of Asoka The Great<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOuz0Kq4IPKp5i-Imoo_2dDYTS554HyX-pP1RLligQ5yFay-lbLN4Dl459Mrfhd5_Yt6Q33gk5uBzQfC8Xis-pE_mHQ7MW7RhHOlQ4WnqzC3oZ_cSM77ZoPC45c4I2nnhjjknPC0kO3tTp/s1600/51243812.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhOuz0Kq4IPKp5i-Imoo_2dDYTS554HyX-pP1RLligQ5yFay-lbLN4Dl459Mrfhd5_Yt6Q33gk5uBzQfC8Xis-pE_mHQ7MW7RhHOlQ4WnqzC3oZ_cSM77ZoPC45c4I2nnhjjknPC0kO3tTp/s200/51243812.jpg" width="140" /></a></div><br />
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<div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: large;"><b>Biography of Asoka The Great (300-232 B.C.E)</b></span></div><br />
<div class="text"></div><div class="text"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Asoka was one of the most powerful kings of the Indian subcontinent. A ruler of the Mauryan Empire, Ashoka ruled over the country from 273 BC to 232 BC. The reign of Emperor Asoka covered most of India, South Asia and beyond, stretching from present day Afghanistan and parts of Persia in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and Mysore in the south. However, the Battle of Kalinga changed King Asoka completely. From a power hungry emperor, he turned into a Buddhist follower and started preaching the principles of Buddhism throughout the world. Read on this biography to know more about the life history of 'Ashoka the Great':</span></span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Early Life</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Asoka was born in 304 BC, to Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and a relatively lower ranked queen, Dharma. The legend associated with the emperor goes that his </span><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD2" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">birth</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> had been predicted by Buddha, in the story of 'The Gift of Dust'. Buddhist Emperor Ashoka had only one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, but, several elder half-brothers. Right from his childhood days Ashoka showed great </span><span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD1" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">promise</span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> in the field of weaponry skills as well as academics. </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Accession to the Throne</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Asoka quickly grew into an excellent warrior general and an astute statesman. His command on the Mauryan army started growing day by day and because of this, his elder brothers became <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD4">suspicious</span> of him being favored by Bindusara as the next emperor. The eldest son of Bindusara, Prince Susima, convinced him to send Asoka to Takshashila province (in Sindh) to control an uprising caused by the formation of different militias. However, the moment Ashoka reached the province, the militias welcomed him with open arms and the uprising came to an end without any fight. This particular success of Asoka made his elder brothers, especially Susima, more insecure. <br />
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Susima started inciting Bindusara against Ashoka, who was then sent into exile by the emperor. Asoka went to Kalinga, where he met a fisherwoman named Kaurwaki. He fell in love with her and later, made Kaurwaki his second or third wife. Soon, the province of Ujjain started witnessing a violent uprising. Emperor Bindusara called back Ashoka from the exile and sent him to Ujjain. The prince was injured in the ensuing battle and was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. It was in Ujjain that Asoka first came to know about the life and teachings of Buddha. In Ujjain, he also met Devi, his personal nurse, who later became his wife. </span> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><br />
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In the following year, Bindusura became seriously ill and was literally on his deathbed. A group of ministers, led by Radhagupta, called upon Ashoka to assume the crown. In the fight that followed his accession, Ashoka attacked Pataliputra, now Patna, and killed all his brothers, including Susima. After he became the King, Ashoka launched brutal assaults to expand his empire, which lasted for around eight years. Around this time, his Buddhist queen, Devi, gave birth to Prince Mahindra and Princess Sanghamitra.</span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>The Battle of Kalinga</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">The battle of Kalinga (now Orissa) became a <span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD5">turning point</span> in the life of 'Asoka the Great'. The exact reason for the battle is not known. However, it is believed that one of Ashoka's brothers took refuge at Kalinga and this enraged Asoka, who launched a brutal assault on the province. The whole of the province was plundered and destroyed and thousands of people were killed. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Embracing & Spreading Buddhism</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">It is said that after the battle of Kalinga was over, King Asoka went on a tour of the city. He could see nothing except burnt houses and scattered corpses. This was the first time in his life that Emperor Ashoka realized the consequences of wars and battles. It is said that even after he had returned to Patliputra, he was haunted by the scenes he saw in Kalinga. Even his queen, Devi, who was a Buddhist, left him after seeing the brutality at Kalinga. <br />
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It was during this time that he embraced Buddhism under the Brahmin Buddhist sages, Radhaswami and Manjushri. After adopting Buddhism, Asoka started propagating its principles throughout the world, even as far as ancient Rome and Egypt. Infact, he can be credited with making the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist policy. </span> <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Policy</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Buddhist Emperor Asoka built thousands of Stupas and Viharas for Buddhist followers. One of his stupas, the Great Sanchi Stupa, has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNECSO. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath has a four-lion capital, which was later adopted as the national emblem of the modern Indian republic. Throughout his life, 'Asoka the Great' followed the policy of nonviolence or ahimsa. Even the slaughter or mutilation of animals was abolished in his kingdom. He promoted the concept of vegetarianism. The caste system ceased to exist in his eyes and he treated all his subjects as equals. At the same time, each and every person was given the rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality. </span></span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Missions to Spread Buddhism</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">The third council of Buddhism was held under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka. He also supported the Vibhajjavada sub-school of the Sthaviravada sect, now known as the Pali Theravada. He sent his missionaries to the following places: </span></div><ul style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Kashmir - Gandhara Majjhantika</span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Mahisamandala (Mysore) - Mahadeva </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Vanavasi (<span class="IL_AD" id="IL_AD3">Tamil Nadu</span>) - Rakkhita </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Aparantaka (Gujarat and Sindh) - Yona Dhammarakkhita </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Maharattha (Maharashtra) - Mahadhammarakkhita </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">"Country of the Yona" (Bactria/ Seleucid Empire) - Maharakkhita </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Himavanta (Nepal) - Majjhima </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Suvannabhumi (Thailand/ Myanmar) - Sona and Uttara </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Lankadipa (Sri Lanka) - Mahamahinda </span></li>
</ul><div class="text" style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">His missionaries also went to the below mentioned places: </span></div><ul style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Seleucid Empire (Middle Asia) </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Egypt </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Macedonia </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Cyrene (Libya) </span></li>
<li><span style="font-size: x-small;">Epirus (Greece and Albania) </span></li>
</ul><div class="text"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: small;"><b>Death</b></span></div><div class="text"><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">After ruling over the Indian subcontinent for a period of approximately 40 years, the Great Emperor Asoka left for the holy abode in 232 BC. After his death, his empire lasted for just fifty more years. </span></span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7277245263596266670.post-51646518151995808682011-02-02T16:06:00.001+06:002011-02-03T00:38:04.476+06:00Biography of Leonardo Da Vinci<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0F_1Xz-Rh88mGL39HRuab-5FHmK7ZHWyPLHn0paq6oYQGRk0Ch6RRtWKZ44RYbrK9X_MWjBAsPxQe5sBxPbi-Bjs2ByIkbM8i3JqEUHvJ3TQFY9iYe5DjwuJN10z7Qu2PNqHPTyzAfy-s/s1600/2921800713_ed3247e5dc.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0F_1Xz-Rh88mGL39HRuab-5FHmK7ZHWyPLHn0paq6oYQGRk0Ch6RRtWKZ44RYbrK9X_MWjBAsPxQe5sBxPbi-Bjs2ByIkbM8i3JqEUHvJ3TQFY9iYe5DjwuJN10z7Qu2PNqHPTyzAfy-s/s200/2921800713_ed3247e5dc.jpg" width="150" /></a></div><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;">Biography of Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519)</b></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">The illegitimate son of a 25-year-old notary, Ser Piero, and a peasant girl, Caterina, Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in Vinci, Italy, just outside Florence. His father took custody of the little fellow shortly after his birth, while his mother married someone else and moved to a neighboring town. They kept on having kids, although not with each other, and they eventually supplied him with a total of 17 half sisters and brothers.. </span><br />
<div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Growing up in his father's Vinci home, Leonardo had access to scholarly texts owned by family and friends. He was also exposed to Vinci's longstanding painting tradition, and when he was about 15 his father apprenticed him to the renowned workshop of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence. Even as an apprentice, Leonardo demonstrated his colossal talent. Indeed, his genius seems to have seeped into a number of pieces produced by the Verrocchio's workshop from the period 1470 to 1475. For example, one of Leonardo's first big breaks was to paint an angel in Verrochio's "Baptism of Christ," and Leonardo was so much better than his master's that Verrochio allegedly resolved never to paint again. Leonardo stayed in the Verrocchio workshop until 1477 when he set up a shingle for himself. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> In search of new challenges and the big bucks, he entered the service of the Duke of Milan in 1482, abandoning his first commission in Florence, "The Adoration of the Magi". He spent 17 years in Milan, leaving only after Duke Ludovico Sforza's fall from power in 1499. It was during these years that Leonardo hit his stride, reaching new heights of scientific and artistic achievement. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> The Duke kept Leonardo busy painting and sculpting and designing elaborate court festivals, but he also put Leonardo to work designing weapons, buildings and machinery. From 1485 to 1490, Leonardo produced a studies on loads of subjects, including nature, flying machines, geometry, mechanics, municipal construction, canals and architecture (designing everything from churches to fortresses). His studies from this period contain designs for advanced weapons, including a tank and other war vehicles, various combat devices, and submarines. Also during this period, Leonardo produced his first anatomical studies. His Milan workshop was a veritable hive of activity, buzzing with apprentices and students. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Alas, Leonardo's interests were so broad, and he was so often compelled by new subjects, that he usually failed to finish what he started. This lack of "stick-to-it-ness" resulted in his completing only about six works in these 17 years, including "The Last Supper" and "The Virgin on the Rocks," and he left dozens of paintings and projects unfinished or unrealized (see "Big Horse" in sidebar). He spent most of his time studying science, either by going out into nature and observing things or by locking himself away in his workshop cutting up bodies or pondering universal truths. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Between 1490 and 1495 he developed his habit of recording his studies in meticulously illustrated notebooks. His work covered four main themes: painting, architecture, the elements of mechanics, and human anatomy. These studies and sketches were collected into various codices and manuscripts, which are now hungrily collected by museums and individuals (Bill Gates recently plunked down $30 million for the Codex Leicester!). </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Back to Milan... after the invasion by the French and Ludovico Sforza's fall from power in 1499, Leonardo was left to search for a new patron. Over the next 16 years, Leonardo worked and traveled throughout Italy for a number of employers, including the dastardly Cesare Borgia. He traveled for a year with Borgia's army as a military engineer and even met Niccolo Machiavelli, author of "The Prince." Leonardo also designed a bridge to span the "golden horn" in Constantinople during this period and received a commission, with the help of Machiavelli, to paint the "Battle of Anghiari." </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> About 1503, Leonardo reportedly began work on the "Mona Lisa." On July 9, 1504, he received notice of the death of his father, Ser Piero. Through the contrivances of his meddling half brothers and sisters, Leonardo was deprived of any inheritance. The death of a beloved uncle also resulted in a scuffle over inheritance, but this time Leonardo beat out his scheming siblings and wound up with use of the uncle's land and money. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> From 1513 to 1516, he worked in Rome, maintaining a workshop and undertaking a variety of projects for the Pope. He continued his studies of human anatomy and physiology, but the Pope forbade him from dissecting cadavers, which truly cramped his style. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Following the death of his patron Giuliano de' Medici in March of 1516, he was offered the title of Premier Painter and Engineer and Architect of the King by Francis I in France. His last and perhaps most generous patron, Francis I provided Leonardo with a cushy job, including a stipend and manor house near the royal chateau at Amboise. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Although suffering from a paralysis of the right hand, Leonardo was still able to draw and teach. He produced studies for the Virgin Mary from "The Virgin and Child with St. Anne", studies of cats, horses, dragons, St. George, anatomical studies, studies on the nature of water, drawings of the Deluge, and of various machines. </span></div><div style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux, France. Legend has it that King Francis was at his side when he died, cradling Leonardo's head in his arms. </span></div></div>Unknownnoreply@blogger.com0